"The present generation have nearly forgotten this extraordinary man [William Cobbett], who in the beginning of this century, and particularly during the period which elapsed between the battle of Waterloo and the introduction of the Reform Bill, exercised a most powerful influence over the minds of the working classes of England especially in reference to the question of reform, which by his writings and his lectures he had done more than any man in England to promote, though the extreme violence of his language had made many enemies, both to himself and the cause which he advocated." (Moles. i. 138.) This period is still more inelegant than the one previously cited. The former part of it is well constructed, and with the words "the working classes of England a natural pause is reached, which should have been indicated by a full-stop. It is enough for one sentence to mark, with the needful limitations, a significant factviz. the "powerful influence" exerted by "an extraordinary man over the working classes of England." Instead of this, the writer has tacked on by a conjunctive "which," what is really a new and complex period. The entire passage might be reconstructed thus: "The present generation have [? has] nearly forgotten the extraordinary man who, in the beginning of this century exercised a most powerful influence over the minds of the working classes of England. By his writings and his lectures he had done more than any other man in England to promote reform, though the extreme violence of his language had made many enemies to himself and the cause which he advocated." ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR CRITICISM. "He had been severely chagrined at the previous disasters which his troops had undergone, and which had excited great irritation in the breast of the Emperor, who had resolved on his dismissal." (Alison, Contin. ch. xxvi.) "To the memory of Lord George Frederick Cavendish Bentinck, second surviving son of William Henry Cavendish Scott, fourth duke of Portland, &c., whose ardent patriotism and uncompromising honesty were only equalled by the persevering zeal and extraordinary talents, which called forth the grateful homage of those who in erecting this memorial, pay a heartfelt tribute to exertions which prematurely brought to the grave one who might long have lived the pride of his native country." (Memorial in Breen, p. 141.)* § 41. One or two other points require to be noted in connexion with the use of the Relative, though belonging rather to Grammar than to the art of Composition. Mr. Breen remarks:-"The great advantage of this style consists in the facility with which the sentence may be spun out to any length, without the slightest effort of memory or understanding," ib. § 42. i. The Case of the Relative Pronoun "who" is sometimes wrongly made to depend upon a verb which is really parenthetical, the verb to which it properly belongs being left without a Subject. The following are instances of this very common fault: "These were not the golden youth, whom he had been assured by Bertram would greet him." (Novel.) Analyse this sentence, and the error at once appears. This is its structure: 1. Principal sentence: These were not the golden youth 2. Adjectival sentence qualifying "youth" [who] (= the youth) would greet him. 3. Adverbial sentence, modifying No. 2: [as] he had been assured by Bertram. Detach the Adverbial sentence from the passage as quoted, and it reads thus: "These were not the golden youth whom . . . . would greet him." ... For "whom" read "who," and sense and grammar are both perfect. "I heard with great pleasure that this was not a party division-and from the right hon. member for Bradford, whom I believe is a judge of the subject." (Debates.) Here again there is a verb left without a subject, and the fault is still more conspicuous than in the preceding example, owing to the greater nearness of the verb ("is") to what should be its subject ("whom," i.e. "who"). This kind of error may be partly owing to the influence of the Latin idiom: "quem existimo hujusce rei judicem esse (similarly in Greek: ὅνπερ ἐν τούτοις δεινὸν εἶναι otoμai). See also E. Gr. § 235, Obs. 2. § 43. A similar error in the use of the compound Relative is committed in the following passage :— "The quiet happy face that lighted up As from a sunshine in the heart within, (Mrs. King, The Disciples, p. 51.) For "whomsoever" read whosoever. The object of the verb "rejoicing" is understood, not expressed :-rejoicing him whoever looked.. ... And again in the following: "He called on whomsoever would to bring 39 Their offerings to the treasury of war.' (Ib. p. 130.) § 44. ii. The Relative is sometimes wrongly omitted. The conditions under which such an ellipsis is admissible are stated, E. G. § 239. The Relative should never be omitted when it is the subject of its sentence; nor when, if expressed, it would take a Preposition before it. The following examples are therefore more or less faulty : "Mr. Prince has a genius [which, omitted] would prompt him to better things." (Steele, Spect. No. 466.) "In the strain and on the plan [on which, omitted] Mr. Burke was writing, he might have written on to as many thousands [of pages]." (Paine, Rights, p. 7.) "In the situation [in which, omitted] England now is, it is impossible she can increase in money." (Ib. p. 155.) Such omissions as the above are frequent in writers of the 17th and 18th centuries; but they are not in accordance with the usage of the present day. § 45. iii. "What" is sometimes inelegantly used for "that which." In its legitimate use, it refers to an antecedent of an indefinite kind, and one implied rather than expressed: as, "What I have written I have written," i.e." the words or the writing which I have written. . .” "What is quickly learned is often quickly forgotten,” i.e. “ the thing or the lesson which is quickly learned. But when there is a definite antecedent, the use of what for that which is a vulgarism. It is so in the following examples : "The mind of the nation was acted upon by a higher stimulus than what the consideration of persons could inspire." (Paine, Rights, p. 25.) The mind can hardly conceive to itself a more tremendous scene than what the city of Paris exhibited at the time of taking the Bastille.” (Ib. p. 27.) In both these, instead of "what." "that which" should have been used, § 46. iv. A breach of concord is sometimes committed in the case of restrictive relative sentences (E. Gr. § 233), serving to define and limit the application of the Superlative degree of adjectives; as in the following example: "The public attention was speedily diverted from these topics by the interest which the peace excited, and by the eclipsing horror of one of the most atrocious deeds of darkness that has ever been committed in this or any other country." (Moles. H. E. iii. 76.) Either the general rule for the concord of the Relative ["The Relative agrees with its antecedent in NUMBER and Person"]_must be abandoned, or the above sentence is wrong. The antecedent to the Relative pronoun that is clearly the plural noun deeds"-not the singular noun deed " understood with the adjective "one." "That" is therefore plural and accordingly the verb should be plural. 66 66 § 47. Yet such sentences as the above are not unfrequently to be met with in respectable authors, and have been defended critically. The following additional examples are given in Breen's Modern English Literature (p. 15): "Valencia is one of the most delightful cities which is to be found in Europe." (Alison.) แ "Mr. Dodsley this year brought out his Preceptor, one of the most valuable books for the improvement of young minds that has appeared in any language." (Boswell, Johnson.) "Sully bought of Monsieur de la Roche Guyon one of the finest horses that ever was seen.' (Southey, Doctor.) "It was one of the most important alliances that ever was formed." (Roscoe, Life of Leo X.)* The following example is even less to be defended; the close proximity of the plural antecedent to a singular verb, having a very harsh effect "The Duke of Wellington is one of those who never interferes with matters over which he has no control." § 48. Anticipatory use of Pronouns.-The most natural use of a pronoun is to represent a noun already expressed. A pronoun is however sometimes used in anticipation of its noun. This construction is only admissible when the noun follows so closely upon its substitute that the reader "Very often the verb may with advantage be omitted: e.g.- 66 ... one of the most valuable books [to be found] in any language." 44 ... one of the finest horses. . . ever seen." ་་ one of the most important alliances ... ever formed." is not kept in suspense as to the meaning. Even then it should be sparingly used. The following examples are perhaps unobjectionable : "By long study of him, I am in fact become much more familiar with Homer than before (Cowper, Letters, vi. 142.) "As soon as they had finished their repast, the young people rose from the table, to close the festivities of the day with dancing." (Prescott, Mex. i. 119.) "This code was adopted as their own by the two other members of the triple alliance." (Ib. p. 129.) "Clumsy as it was, however, the Aztec picture-writing seems to have been adequate to the demands of the nation in their [? its] imperfect state of civilization." (Ib. p. 75.) The last of the above four examples is perfectly good. On referring to the context from which it is detached, the student will see that though grammatically the pronoun "it" refers to the noun following ("Aztec writing"), yet in point of thought it connects itself with the preceding paragraph. Thus it is scarcely a case in point. The same remarks apply to the example from Cowper. But the other two, though fairly good as they stand, would be improved by the transposition of pronoun and noun: thus "As soon as the young people had finished their repast, they rose from the table," &c. "This code was adopted by the two other members of the triple alliance as their own." § 49. The following instances are open to more serious objection: "The discipline of children, especially at the public schools, as stated in a previous chapter, was exceedingly severe. But after she had come to a mature age, the Aztec maiden was treated by her parents with a tenderness from which all reserve seemed banished." (Prescott, Mex. i. 115.) the university of Padua is a dying taper; but Verona still boasts her amphitheatre, and his native Vicenza is adorned by the classic architecture of Palladio." (Gibbon, Autobiog. p. 79.) Why not adhere to the natural order and say— (1) "But after the Aztec maiden had come to mature age (2) "The classic architecture of Palladio adorns his native Vicenza "? One more example of this kind may suffice |