authority of the Bishop. It was a title which soon came into use after monastic bodies obtained some cohesion and lived by some acknowledged rule.

Architecture, Church. Prefatory.-Under this head an endeavor will be made to inquire into the nature and structure of the places of worship of the early Christians, their development from the upper room of the days of the Apostles, through the intervening centuries, to the magnificent structures of the Middle Ages, continuing thence to our own times. But a cursory glance can be given to the history of this subject in the limited space here allotted, the idea of this article being mainly to show what may be done in the way of improving the architecture and arrangement of our parish churches, adapting them not only to the wants of the congregation, but making them more houses of GOD, monuments and offerings of a grateful people to the great and unseen CREATOR of all things.

Early History.-What little is known of the places of worship of the early Christians is found in the patristic writings and among the writings of the early Christian historians, while much information is also obtain able from the early heathen writers of the age. In the earliest times, doubtless, there were no fixed edifices, services being held in the houses of Christians, sometimes, as we read in the Scriptures, in an upper room, as when Paul was stopping at Troas: "Upon the first day of the week, when the disciples came together to break bread (that is, to celebrate the Eucharist), Paul preached unto them, ready to depart on the morrow, and continued his speech until midnight. And there were many lights in the upper chamber, where they were gathered together. Now there sat in a window a certain young man named Eutychus, being fallen into a deep sleep, and as Paul was long preaching, he sunk down with sleep and fell down from the third loft and was taken up dead."

This is the most particular description of a house of worship that we find in the Scriptures. It will be noticed that this is an upper room, as was also that in which our SAVIOUR celebrated the Last Supper. These out-of-the-way places were doubtless selected because in those early days it was as much as a man's life was worth to proclaim himself a Christian. In Rome we find them worshiping in the houses of wealthy Christians, in underground chapels, and in other places where they were least liable to be disturbed.

Owing to the cruel persecutions to which the early Christians were subjected, both under the tyrant Nero, 64 A.D., and then under the Roman Emperor Domitian, 94 A.D., many have held that there were no structures set apart for the worship of GOD. Yet St. Paul says, "Have ye not houses to eat and drink in? or despise ye the Church of GOD?" Now it is shown that the ancient writers, St. Austin, St. Basil, St. Chrys

ostom, and St. Jerome, took this to mean the place set apart for Christian worship, and not the assembly of people. Then we know that the disciples often met together for prayer and worship after the death of our SAVIOUR.

In the second century, when the persecutions were still active against the Christians and it became necessary for them to band together, Ignatius writes to exhort them to meet together in one place, and in his Epistle to the Philadelphians says that at this time there was one altar in every church, and one Apostolic Bishop, or head, appointed with his Presbytery and Deacons. Some of the later Greek readings omit the word Church, but speak of the one altar, thus showing that there was a stated place of worship. Then history tells us of people turning their houses over to the Church in which to celebrate the divine offices of worship. We have record of forty churches in Rome at the date of the last persecution, and there were many in Africa.

As early as the middle of the third century Gregory of Neo Caesarea writes describing the degrees or admission of penitents, according to the discipline of those days:

1st. Weepers (the first degree of penance) were without the porch of the oratory. There the mournful sinners stood and begged of all the faithful, as they went in, to pray for them.

2d. Hearers (the second degree) were within the porch, in the place called Narthex, where the penitent sinners might stand near the catechumens and hear the Scripture read and expounded, but were to go out before them.

3d. Prostrantes,-lying down along the church-pavement. These prostrate ones were admitted somewhat farther into the church and went out with the catechu

mens.

4th. Stantes,-staying with the people or congregation. These consistentes did not go out with the catechumens, but after they and the other penitents had left remained. and joined in prayer with the faithful.

5. Participators in the Sacraments.

About the beginning of the fourth century Constantine ascended the throne, and becoming fully convinced of the truth of the Christian religion, set about establishing it throughout his dominions, erecting churches everywhere. For some time before his reign, and even into it for twenty-five years, heathen temples were used to some extent for Christian worship, how much has never been determined. At this time, however (333 A.D.), Constantine ordered all the temples, altars, and images of the heathen to be destroyed, and in many instances these temples were demolished and their revenues confiscated. Some of the later emperors, however, instead of pulling down the temples, converted them to Christian Honorius published in the Western Empire two laws forbidding the destruction of any

uses.

more temples in the cities, as they might serve for ornament or public use, being once purged of their idols and altars. There can be no doubt of the antipathy of the Christians to the fine arts, because defiled by idolatrous uses, and that they destroyed everything that was beautiful that came in their way. Notwithstanding the later imperial decrees for the preservation of the heathen temples, nothing could induce the people to tolerate them or their contents, and it was only in a few out-of-the-way places, as at Palestine, they were allowed to remain. At Rome the only example that owes its preservation distinctively to the Christians is the Pantheon. They destroyed everything that they could lay their hands on, the more beautiful the quickest destroyed, it mattered not so long as it savored of the rites of the heathen Church. They worked, even as in later times the Puritans worked in England: whatever was beautiful, whatever pleased the eye, if it belonged to the earlier religion, must give way to the new.

We know that the Emperor Constantine gave orders, after a long search by the Empress Helena, which resulted in finding the Holy Sepulchre, that a church be erected over its site. The place had been desecrated by the pagans; they even had erected a statue of Venus over the place, and dedicated the spot to the heathen goddess. Constantine orders how the church shall be built, of what form, of what materials, and sets forth as to the decoration, etc. All in a most elaborate manner. There is even a plan of this Holy Sepulchre Church handed down by the Abbot Adamnan of Iona on his tablets, as he took it down from the description of Arculphus, a Gallican Bishop, who had visited the East. It was of "wonderful rotundity," entered by four doors; it contained three aisles, and was surrounded by twelve columns; hanging in it were twelve lamps, burning day and night, emblems of the twelve Apostles.

Although the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was evidently round, it had other parts attached, and there is little evidence of this form being employed elsewhere to any great extent, the usual form being that of a parallelogram Baptisteries, however, were generally built either round or polygonal. It is evident that the churches, of whatever form, had other buildings attached, both for secular and religious purposes,-such as libraries, houses for the clergy, schools, etc., much the same as in the later cathedrals and in many of the mission churches of today in London, and occasionally in America. The entrance was at the west end, the church being placed east and west, with the altar at the east. There are exceptions to this custom; no more, however, than to prove the rule, the habit being to face to the east, so in this way it became natural to orientate the churches. Entering the western door, and passing through the porch, a large open court was reached, surrounded

by a colonnade. In the centre, this court contained a fountain, used to wash the hands and face, sometimes the feet. This, perhaps, is the origin of the custom now in vogue in Roman churches, though perverted, of having a stoup of holy water at the door. This open court, or atrium, was used for penitents of the first order, those who were not allowed to enter the church; later it was used as a place of burial, particularly for the wealthy and those of distinction. Passing through this quadrangle the narthex was reached. Entrance to this was had through three gates, the central usually the larger. There were, sometimes, several narthexes to a church, even as many as four. The narthex formed the first division of the church, and contained the catechumens and the hearers. Jews, infidels, and heretics were admitted here. In front came the third class of penitents.

The narthex was separated from the nave or church proper by a wooden screen, or railing. The nave was entered through several gates, often called royal or beautiful gates. Here were congregated the main body of worshipers, those in full communion and under no censure.

The sexes were usually separated during service, a practice that is yet in use in some of the modern ritualistic Churches. St. Cyril says, "Let men be with men and women with women in the church." Then

in the Apostolical constitutions, "Let the door-keepers stand at the gate of the men, and the deaconesses at the gate of the women." The women were usually placed on the north side of the church. The Greeks now put them in the galleries.

Not only was this order observed, but the virgins, matrons, and widows were given distinct places; then came the order of penitents not allowed to partake of the Holy Eucharist, but permitted to stay in the church and witness the celebration. East of the nave came the choir, the place for the singers. This was separated from the former by a screen or low wall. Here was placed the ambo, or pulpit, from which the gospel and epistle were read. The sermon, as a rule, was preached by the Bishop from the altar-steps, although St. Chrysostom, the better to be heard of the people, preached from the ambo.

Extending from the choir eastward, was the sanctuary, corresponding to the holy of holies of Jews. The Latins called it the sacrarium. Here were celebrated the Church's most sacred offices. The sacrarium was always elevated above the choir, and was often separated from it by a rail or low screen called cancelli, hence the word chancel. This was to keep out the multitude. The Council of Laodicea forbade lay persons entering the sanctuary, while the Council of Trullo says, "That no layman whatsoever be permitted to enter the place of the altar, excepting only the Emperor, when he makes his oblation to the CREATOR, according to ancient custom."

The sacrarium was usually semicircular in plan. In the centre was placed the altar, raised on several steps, and surmounted by a canopy supported by twelve columns, symbolical of the twelve Apostles. On the top of the canopy was a cross, while behind the altar was the Bishop's chair raised and facing west. Around the circumference of the apse were placed the seats for the priests. The early altars were of wood, but this material was not used long, as is evident from the decree of the Council of Epone, that no altars should be consecrated except such as be of stone. Gregory Nyssen says, "This altar whereat we stand is by nature only common stone, nothing different from other stones, whereof our walls are made and pavements formed; but after it is consecrated, and dedicated to the services of GOD, it becomes a holy table, an immaculate altar, which may not promiscuously be touched by all, but only by the priests in the time of divine service." All of which goes to show the sacred feeling for the church, and especially its more sacred altar, held even in the very early days of the Church. The spaces between the columns of the canopy to the altar were hung with curtains or veils to conceal the altar. St. Chrysostom says, "When you see the veils undrawn, then think you see heaven opened, and the angels descending from above." Hangings were placed in other parts of the church, sometimes richly worked in gold. They were placed between nave and chancel, and before doors, etc. The altar was covered with a linen cloth, emblem of purity. The sacred vessels were of various substances, usually of gold and silver, yet glass was used in the earlier times for chalices.

Often beside the altar in a recess on one side was a shelf to contain the offerings of bread and wine. On the opposite side from this was the priest's vestry.

Outside the main body of the church, and within an outer inclosure, were the various buildings connected with the church, such as the baptistery, which in those days was always a separate structure, the library, priests' houses, etc.

The interiors of these churches of the early Christians were, according to the writers of the time, quite elaborately decorated. The walls were often lined with marble, while the roofs were of mosaic or paneled, and covered with gold and color. The altars were inlaid with precious stones and gold and silver, while gates were set with silver and ivory, and columns were of rare marbles with capitals of bright gold.

It has been thought by some that the ancient Roman basilica, the seat of public justice of the time, suggested the form and arrangement of the Christian church. However true this may be, they certainly bore a close resemblance, and there are numerous instances of basilice being converted into churches. This plan of Trajan's Basilica will show how far the basilica was imi

tated in the arrangement of the Christian church (Fig. 1). The basilica was of the shape of a parallelogram, with a semicircular apse at one-sometimes at either-end.

FIG. 1.

THE TRIBUNAL

Trajan's Basilica or Justice Hall, Rome, 98 A.D. In the centre of the apse was the seat of the prætor, and below and about him those of the assessors and other officers. These were separated from the main body of the building by a screen of lattice-work called cancelli. In the main body sat the people, while between them and the higher officers of the court sat the advocates and notaries. The main building was divided by two rows of columns into three aisles. These columns supported an arcade carrying a wall containing windows, forming a clear-story, the side aisles being lower. A better arrangement could not have been devised for a Christian church, and it is the form, with slight modifications, that is in use to this day throughout Western Christendom. However well adapted these heathen basilica were to the exigencies of Christian worship, they did not continue long in use. There

is only one example remaining to us of a heathen basilica converted to a Christian church. A veneration for the graves of the martyrs and a distaste for edifices constructed for pagan uses caused, under Christian rule, the demolition of these ancient structures and their re-erection in other places made sacred by containing the remains of the martyrs. Here they were built again on much the same plan and on a yet grander scale. The martyrs were usually put to death outside the city walls, and were supposed to be buried on the spot of their execution, so that when the churches came to be erected on these spots they were very inconvenient of access, being so far from the centre of population.

A custom had grown up of worshiping underground in the catacombs among the

graves of the martyrs, and this custom undoubtedly was the reason, when Christianity became legalized by Constantine, of the churches being set up in the same places, as instanced in Rome by Santa Agnese and San Lorenzo, and also at St. Peter's, which Constantine had placed near to the Circus of Nero, and whose altar was set over the remains of the Apostles. This custom of placing the churches without the city walls caused great inconvenience and was a matter of much moment in later times, when the incursions of northern barbarians prevented an attendance upon the churches and finally caused their desecration, and, in many instances, entire demolition.

The Basilica of St. Peter, however, contained certain additions and variations from the civil basilica. (Fig. 2.) It consisted of a

Plan of ancient Basilica of St. Peter, Rome, 330 A.D.

five-aisled church, extending east and west. At the end of the five aisles was an aisle running north and south; east of this came the apse, giving the plan the form of a cross. There were forty-eight columns of precious marbles inclosing the large aisle, and the lateral aisles contained forty-eight columns likewise. There were an hundred other columns surrounding the various chapels and shrines. The walls were covered with paintings of religious subjects. The flat wooden ceiling was covered with gilt metal and Corinthian brass taken from the temples of Romulus and Jupiter Capitolinus. In this magnificent structure was one candelabrum that alone contained 1360 lights. Beside this there were more than a thousand other lights. All this magnificence in less than three centuries after the death of CHRIST! This structure withstood the varied fortunes of Rome for twelve hundred years, being respected by all its invaders, finally falling away with age. On its site rose another basilica, grander and more beautiful still,

that glory of modern times. When the seat of the Roman Empire was removed to Byzantium, Constantine set about erecting a grand church there, probably modeled on St. Peter's. This did not last long. Another was built on its site and partially destroyed, rebuilt and destroyed again, meeting with many disasters in the mean time. Finally, the most famous architects were called from all parts of the known world by Justinian, and the erection began of the great Church of St. Sophia. This church, unlike those of Rome, formed a Greek cross in plan, each arm being alike, while the Western churches had a Latin cross for a plan. At the intersection of the arms of the cross rose a great dome of peculiar construction. During the revival of learning, communication was established between Greece and Italy, and this last and most magnificent basilica of the Eastern Empire greatly influenced the form and architecture of the new buildings. The Church of St. Mark, at Venice, of the tenth century, was copied in many particulars from St. Sophia, and this influence extended throughout Italy. The modern Church of St. Peter at Rome owes much to this importation of the dome from the East. As did the ancient Basilica of St. Peter's furnish the form for the ancient St. Sophia, so did the later St. Sophia supply much that influenced the modern St. Peter's.

Some writers have held that Constantine removed his seat of empire from Rome to the East to have more freedom in the establishment of his new religion, to throw off all the trammels of an earlier paganism, to start anew and fresh. One of his first objects, of course, was the erection of churches, and having no example anywhere about, the architects were left to their own resources. They undoubtedly drew some from Rome,the idea of the round arch, maybe, and a partial use of the basilica plan. The Eastarchitecture developed from these efforts, however, is a distinct style of its own and essentially a Christian architecture, notwithstanding its early Roman influence. It grew out of the exigencies of the time, having no contact with the earlier pagan styles, and spread over the entire Eastern Empire. This is the style generally known as Byzantine. Its plan is usually the shape of a Greek cross, the eastern end terminating in a semicircular apse: a plan that might be effectually used in the present day, and of which more will be said farther on.

ern

Many say that this work at Byzantium was but a debasement of the Romanesque, itself debased from the Roman and the classics.

It may have been so; allow it so, and yet still we have much to admire; perhaps more in the utilities, than in the beauties, of this style, a style which spread throughout the East, and in the fifth and sixth centuries even to North Italy, where, at Ravenna, are several types. These, and the much later examples at Venice, made mention of

above, are the purest types of the style in the West. The Lombards, however, were greatly influenced in their building by Byzantium; and through the trade with the East this style crept into France, where a whole line of unmistakably Byzantine churches stretch across the southwestern corner of the country. Its correlative, the Romanesque, abounds throughout Southern and Central France, running into Normandy and England, where it is represented by what is called the Norman style.

Both the Romanesque and Byzantine are distinguishable by the round arch, the latter also by the dome. To show the potency of the influence of the dome, essentially a Byzantine production, we have only to be reminded of the name given to the cathedral, even to our day, in many European countries. In Germany we have the Dom, in Italy the Duomo, and, although now the terms are indiscriminately applied to the principal church of a city, they came from the habit of this church being domical. Running from Italy north, and down through the Rhine towns, is a line of roundarched domical churches, evidently owing their inspiration to the East, where the Byzantine maintained its sway until the supremacy of the Ottomans summarily checked its farther spread.

The other essentially Christian style is that now usually denominated Gothic. It may be said to have sprung up simultaneously throughout Europe, while it is certain that no one nation can claim any priority of introduction. Its main characteristic, as now generally understood, is the pointed arch, although many writers have held that the term Gothic included all styles in use after the debasement of the classics and the decline of Roman architecture, including the Lombardic, Romanesque, Byzantine, and Norman.

But the word has now, generally, come to be confined to the pointed arch of the Middle Ages, and in general use throughout Christendom. To be sure, there is the Saracenic, also pointed, but this style is easily distinguished from the Gothic. There are many theories as to the origin of the pointed arch, yet, the divergence of opinion being so great, scarcely any two writers agreeing on any one theory, it will be sufficient here to instance a few of the theories put forth, and a favorite one is that of the form presented by the overhanging boughs of an avenue of trees. Then we have interlaced wicker-work, and the bending of two twigs or wands to meet at the top. Still more plausible is that of the intersected groin of the ceilings of early churches, which formed a pointed arch, while the round arch was observable elsewhere throughout the structure. It is certain, also, that the ancients knew of this shape, as is seen in some of their underground passages and tombs, yet they had not arrived at the correct method of construction of the arch. Although some of

these theories might account for the origin and growth of the pointed arch in a certain locality, yet they could not be held to favor its general and rapid introduction into so many countries at once. Simultaneously, on the return, in the twelfth century, of the Crusaders from the East, this style began to appear, buildings springing up rapidly in all directions. This fact of its springing up at such a time, and so rapidly, has led to the theory of its derivation from the pointed Saracenic arch, and some prejudiced writers have, in their efforts to prevent its use, called it the Saracenic style. Allowing the fact of the adoption of the pointed arch of the East, how are we to account for the wide divergence in the styles? for, although the pointed arch is a principal characteristic of the Gothic, it is not the only one. There are the great idea of verticality; the clustered columns, with their light and slender shafts; the lofty spires and towers; the tracery; the mullions; the cross vaulting.

Fortunately for this Saracenic theory, it has the advantage of chronological correctness, while the simultaneity of the growth of Gothic is the main objection to the adoption of the other theories. Some derive the use of tracery from the perforated fret-work of the Arabians.

The origin of the term Gothic lies shrouded in as much mystery as the source of the style. That the Goths had nothing to do with the introduction of the style which bears their name is now generally accepted, and the use of this pagan name to designate an essentially Christian architecture has annoyed and puzzled many. Other names have been suggested, such as Christian, Pointed, English; but all of them are objectionable and misleading. The Byzantine and Lombardic are as much outgrowths of Christianity as the Gothic, while there are other pointed styles. As for the last term, surely England cannot lay claim to the architecture of the Christian world.

Many writers used the name Gothic as one of reproach, meaning thereby to stigmatize the style as barbarous, outlandish, and uncivilized. The style had its growth in, and belongs essentially to, those countries that had been overrun and inhabited by the Goths, and for this reason, perhaps, it is as appropriate as any.

The Gothic with which we in America have had most to do is that known as English, and this is divided into three distinct periods, with transitions from one period to another, where the character of the work is of necessity more or less mixed. These three periods are designated Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. This is confining the definition of the term Gothic to Pointed Gothic. Saxon and Norman are often counted in as being Gothic, although round-arched. The arch of the Early English is quite sharp, the openings being narrow and high, a complete subversion of the preceding low round-arched Norman, while the