lectures, probably based upon a loose outline of the Apostolic constitutions, are a valuable picture of how far a public lecturer upon Christian topics could go before a mixed audience. The administrative ability of the Bishop Demetrius used both Pantænus and his two successors with great wisdom till Demetrius fell out with Origen. It is said that before Demetrius's time the Church of Alexandria had no dependencies, but from the date of Pantænus's mission, and from the fame and success of the school, soon Sees were added upon Sees, till Alexandria was at the head of a large province. Origen, who succeeded to Pantanus, who resumed his post upon his return, brought, perhaps, the loftiest abilities yet used for the task. Adamantine in endurance, with a mind capacious of all instruction, a master of the Scriptures, no mean critic, he was devoted to his school. His peculiar notions, probably more speculatively held than otherwise, gave a notoriety that pained him, since they were rather questions for debate in his school than formulated dogmas. At any rate, they were fastened upon him. In an hour of enthused fear for himself and his influence in the school he mutilated himself, giving a wrong interpretation to our LORD'S words (Matt. xix. 12). The act disabled him from ordination. When, then, he received ordination on a visit to Palestine, contrary to the Canons, his Bishop took his office as catechist from him. The school became of less importance later as the adults to be prepared for baptism and confirmation grew rarer, but it nurtured a spirit of dispute which produced Arias, the famous heretic, who, however, had received his dialectic training from Lucian, of Antioch. The school was finally closed by becoming a mere nursing-school for the young to be prepared for baptism and confirmation. It is not worth the while to give the names of its later masters save one, Didymus, who was totally blind (340-395 A.D.).

Alienation is, in church matters, the improper disposal of such lands or goods as have been given to the Church for sacred and devout uses. It has always been deemed sinful to apply such means or property to other than direct Church needs. It was hardly an alienation in this sense, when, for the ransom of Christian captives, Bishops sold the Church's plate, or lands even. The like was done in cases of severe famine. But this does not justify the act under other circumstances. The Bishops were only the stewards, and not the owners, and many Canons were necessary throughout the history of every part of the Church restraining them from wasting and for private purposes parting with Church property.

Alienation in Mortmain. The conveying of real estate to any corporate body; in this case, for religious purposes.

Allegory (Gal. iv. 24). An allegory sums up in itself the separate purposes of the Type, Parable, or Metaphor, using either

one of these three as a leading form at varying times. The Canticles are filled with types of CHRIST and His Church, but the whole is allegorical. It expresses one thing under words that, upon the surface, are the expression of another. So Ps. lxxx. 8-16, are an allegory. But the same imagery in Is. v. is there a parable. St. Paul uses the allegory in 1 Cor. x. 4, and in Gal. iv. 1621. The use of allegories is peculiarly Oriental. It is a form adapted to the conveyance of religious truth in very attractive shapes. Allegorical interpretations became a favorite mode of explaining the obscurities in Holy Scripture. The example of St. Paul, as above quoted, was imitated, and a devout spirit, seeing CHRIST every where in the Scripture, was tempted to drag into line many texts which could not possibly contain any direct reference to Him. Theologians claimed for the interpretation of Scripture several modes of treating the text, some of them enumerating sixteen, but three were generally admitted, -the Moral, the Allegorical, and the Mystical Sense, apart from the historical or grammatical But the striving to torture new significations and to find new allegories soon brought on a reaction. However, these methods of interpretation held precedence till the Reformation, when the reaction went too far, producing a temper which empties Holy Scripture of much of its true meaning.

sense.

Alleluia. A formula, or proclamation, "Praise ye the LORD," found in Ps. cxvii., and as a heading to several other Psalms, especially exiii.-cxviii., the great Hallel. Psalms sung at all the greater Jewish festivals. The word has been transferred into all languages. It was recorded by St. John, as used by the Angel Host (Rev. xix. 6, 7). Of course it passed immediately into Christian usage. There is the story of the Hallelujah victory by the Christian Britons over the pagan Picts and Scots (429 A.D.). It was used as a watch-cry of encouragement. It was introduced into the Liturgy in both East and West. It is in the Liturgy of St. James, as the earliest instance. In the West, the Mozarabic (which is of Eastern parentage, however), it was freely used; but in the other Western Churches it was very sparingly used, being used most freely during the Easter and Whitsun feasts. Our own Church bears as one of the marks of Eastern influence the use of the Hallelujah in the Versicles, "Praise ye the LORD, the LORD'S name be praised," in the Morning and Evening Prayers.

All-Saints. In the Eastern Church this was a very ancient feast, St. Chrysostom speaking of it under the name All-Martyrs. It falls upon our Trinity Sunday, crowning the Church's year with a joyful commemoration of all saints of GOD.

In the Western Church this feast had its rise much later, in the consecration into Christian Churches of heathen temples. This practice began in the latter part of Pope

Gregory's life, and when (607 A.D.) Boniface III. procured from the emperor a recognition of his supremacy, his successor, Boniface IV., consecrated the Pantheon to the Virgin and all martyrs (May 13). It is not certain when the commemoration was transferred to November 1. It was not observed in Gaul till later; in England, Bede speaks of it; nor was it general till Louis the Pious, under advice from Gregory IV., ordered it. The Collect, Epistle, and Gospel

were of later date.

All-Souls. A festival falling on the next day after All-Saints' Day. It had its origin in the continuous commemoration at the Holy Communion of "the souls of all those who have died in the communion of the body and blood of our LORD." But beside this Eucharistic commemoration, there were anniversary observances, probably by the surviving relatives. In 837, Amalarius of Metz writes of the annual commemoration of the dead. The festival was at once very popular, after an ordinance by Odilo, Abbot of Clugny, for the abbacies under him.

Almighty. Synonymous with Hebrew LORD GOD of Hosts; the Mighty GOD; Omnipotent. A title which GOD gives Himself in His covenant with Abraham (Gen. xvii. 1). It is continuously used afterwards adown the stream of Revelation. It was taken at once into the Creed, and has maintained its place there ever since as an integral part of the first clause. It is a most important title, for it may be considered (a) as Comprehensive, containing all things; (b) Originative, as creating all things; (e) Preservative of all things. It is fitly used, therefore, by the Church in her Creed, in her Prayers, at the Holy Communion, and in her Hymns, the "Te Deum" and the "Gloria in Excelsis." But this power being of the essential attributes of the Divine Nature belongs equally to the THREE PERSONS of the TRINITY, and so the Athanasian Hymn, "So, likewise, the FATHER is Almighty, the SoN is Almighty, the HOLY GHOST is Almighty, and yet there are not Three Almighties but One ALMIGHTY."

Alms. In Job's solemn protestation of his integrity he places the sharing of his bread with the poor as one of his righteous customs (Job xxxi. 17). From the earliest ages almsgiving and relief of the poor and needy has had a special promise and pledge attached. The Israelite when given the land was ordered to leave the gleaning. He was to share the tithe of his produce every third year with not only the Levite, but also the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow. From the Law the Israelite had this enjoined upon him, and he received the promises of prosperity (Prov. xix. 17; Ps. xii. 1).

Our LORD assumes it as a right and duty in His Sermon on the Mount, and Himself, though ministered to by others, was a Giver of alms. It was the first popular duty in the Church, and it grew so rapidly that the Deaconate was established to super

intend the work. When St. Peter and St. Paul arranged their missionary jurisdictions, St. Paul was enjoined to be mindful of the poor. And it received from him much attention, as we gather from his directions to the Corinthians and elsewhere. He went up to Jerusalem with the collections made for the saints there. When there was a famine threatened in Judæa, alms were sent to the poor from other parts of Syria. In the course of time this almsgiving took more systematic shape. The offertory included food as well as money, and it was shared by the ministers with the poor. The moneys gathered into the treasury were divided into three parts, one for the ministry, one for the repairing and building churches, and the third for the widows and poor. The offertory now should take this latter place to a far larger extent than it has done, especially as the Rubric makes the alms for the poor its chief use. In England extraordinary collections have been taken up from time to time upon royal briefs, but latterly, as the machinery for such a gathering was very expensive,-taking up above half the amount collected,-it has not been often used. After reforms under Anne, and again under George IV., it gradually fell into disuse, though a royal brief was issued as late as 1854.

There should be some system devised and faithfully carried out in each Diocese that shall teach the duty of almsgiving, and show how much good it effects. Alms should be put into the hands of the Bishop of the Diocese for use oftener than they are.

Altar. A structure of stone or wood, upon which the elements of the Holy Communion are consecrated. The more usual name in the Prayer-Book is the LORD's Table, but the term Altar is used in the office of Institution. The word occurs in the Epistle to the Hebrews, "We have an altar, whereof they have no right to eat which serve the tabernacle" (Heb. xiii. 10), and is best referred to the Christian Table. The altar of the Old Testament was one on which bloody sacrifices were offered, though there was also the Altar of Incense. The first altar was built by Noah. The altar was usually placed in some spot deemed for some reason hallowed: as where GOD appeared to Jacob. The material of which they were made was, according to the Mosaic Law, either of earth or of "stones, upon which no tool had been lifted." It was contrary to the Law to build an altar elsewhere than in the Tabernacle, and afterwards in the Temple, though this was frequently violated: as when David built an altar at the threshing-floor of Araunah. Altars, not for sacrifice, were often built, as when the tribes of Reuben and Manasseh, and Gad, put up an Altar of Witness. There was the altar for burnt sacrifice in the Tabernacle made of wood and overlaid with brass; a second larger one made wholly of brass was erected in the first Temple; a third, of unhewn

stones (at least the one that replaced it under Judas Maccabeus, when he cleansed the polluted Temple after Antiochus Epiphanes had desecrated it, was so), was placed in the second Temple on the spot where the brazen altar had stood. In the Temple, as restored by Herod, the altar was also of unhewn stone. There was also the Altar of Incense, which, however, was not properly so, since no sacrifices were offered upon it. As for Christian altars, they have been made of various materials, in early times, generally of wood, but very often of marble, and in one or two instances of gold. Often the wood was decorated or covered with gold or silver plating or chased work and adorned with gems. The form varies from the Table to the Tomb form. In the Greek Liturgical language the term used is trapeza,-table, but with some epithet, as "the spiritual," "the mystical," "the royal," "the holy," or the divine."

In this country there is no rule, and an altar may be made of either wood or stone, and in either of the forms above described. There can be no real objection to using the term altar for the Holy Table, since both terms are used in the Prayer-Book, and upon it are placed the oblations for the memorial our LORD commanded us to make of His one, full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice once offered.

Altar-Cloth. The cloths with which the Holy Table is vested, either as permanent coverings, or for the celebration of the Holy Communion. The earliest unquestionable reference to altar-cloths other than for the celebration is found in St. Chrysostom's Homily on Matthew xiv. 23, 24, wherein he contrasts the costly silken embroidered covering given for the Holy Table with the scanty clothing often grudgingly given to the poor. In his time (390-405 A.D.) we see that such costly altar-cloths were usual. The symbolic use of colors in altar vestments for the several seasons of the Christian year is not more than seven or eight centuries old. (Vide COLORS.)

Altar-Piece. This was a picture or carved bas-relief placed behind and over the altar. This practice of placing pictures in churches, though very ancient, still won its way slowly, against much opposition. The danger that arose later was clearly seen by a few. The feeling that the house of GOD should be made as glorious as possible filled the devout hearts of the many. The earliest instance we have of a picture in a church is from St. Epiphanius (391 A.D.), who, when journeying through Palestine, found at Anablatha a veil hanging before the doors of the sanctuary of the church with painting of CHRIST or some Saint upon it. This he had torn into pieces and given for a winding-sheet for the poor, and replaced it with a plain veil from his own home in Cyprus. Paulinus of Nola (402 A.D.) introduced pictures largely in his new church. They were of Scripture subjects, and were de

a

signed to instruct the illiterate. From this time on the decoration of churches with

paintings became more common. These remarks apply to pictures proper, for we find symbolic decoration much earlier, but nothing that applies to paintings. But while frequent casual references are made to pictures, after this there is ever a note of warning sounded. The famous Gregory I., in condemning the misuse of pictures, urges that it would be wrong to remove them, as they were object-lessons in sacred history to the unlearned (Ep. ad Ser. Mass.). There was, at first, very much objection to producing any likeness of our LORD, but that, soon after the common introduction of art into the Church, was overcome.

Very early mosaics exist, the oldest of which are at Ravenna and at Thessalonica. The Cross was a symbol that was employed at a very early date, but the Crucifix was not used till very much later. The oldest frescoes are of Saints, in the catacombs at Naples, in the fifth, but the nearest in age after them are dated about the eighth, century. There were three styles, distinct in treatment of the same subjects, the Roman, the Byzantine, and the Lombard, which developed upon different lines of church decoration. In the Greek Church the iconostasis is the space on which the greatest amount of painting is placed.

The

Altar-Rails are of modern arrangement, being due probably to Archbishop Laud, who had them erected to prevent the profanations and intrusions which frequently occurred. They have taken the place of the old open-work grating or screen which parted the choir from the nave. This latter separation was of ancient date, as may be shown by the frequent references and descriptions, as that by Eusebius (325-40 A.D.) of the Church in Tyre. It was open trellised work, often enriched by bronze or gilt or silver. material was usually of wood or iron, but sometimes of stone. There was always some mode of marking the division between the nave of the church and the sanctuary. the Eastern Church it was as above, till later, when the open-work was paneled and painted with pictures of CHRIST and the Apostles or Saints, and entered by doors, which therefore formed a complete partition between the two portions of the church (ICONOSTASIS). The material of which this iconostasis was made was usually of wood, though other material is used also. In the West, the partition was, as stated above, without railing and open-work.

In

It

Ambon, or Ambo. The desk or raised platform for the reader, from which the Epistle and Gospel were read, notices were published, and from which the inferior clergy preached. Its position varied. probably occupied the same position relatively that the place for the readers did in the synagogue. It often stood in the middle of the nave, but sometimes to the right of the front of what we now call the choir.

In large churches there were often two Ambons, one on the right for the Gospel, the other on the left for the Epistle. The Ambon was probably movable. It preceded the pulpit, which was later. (Vide PULPIT.) It was frequently ornamented with carved work on its panels, and in some examples still surviving it was supported upon a pillar. That at St. Sophia (536 A.D.) had two flights of steps, the one on the east, the other on the west. The Bishop generally preached from his chair (Cathedra), but sometimes from a desk in front of the altar. St. Chrysostom preached from the Ambon that he might be heard the better. At Ravenna exists still an Ambon which may date from the building of the church (493525 A.D.).

Ambrosian Rite. Vide LITURGIES.

Amen. Faithful, True, Firm (Heb. and Gr.). The response of the people to every prayer. It is a strong asseveration of either faith in or consent to the contents of the prayer. The people gave their consent to the binding power of the curses pronounced upon Mt. Ebal (Deut. xxvii. 15) by their Amen. It was a title GOD by Isaiah (lxv. 16) gave Himself," the GOD of Amen." It had the force of an oath, as when the accused woman was to reply to the Priest, reciting the curse upon perjury, Amen, Amen, in the trial for jealousy (Num. v. 22). It, of course, passed into Christian use at once (1 Cor. xiv. 16), but our LORD gave it a significance which we undervalue. The enunciation of solemn central truths of His Revelation was always preceded by an Amen, Amen (Verily, Verily), as in St. John iii. 3, 5, 11; v. 19, 24, 25; vi. 32, 47, 53; viii. 51, 58, etc. Compare with this and with Is. lxv. 16; Rev. iii. 14. The response was always made loud and full. The Amen should be printed in other type when it is a response than when it is an invocation. In the one case (in Italics) the congregation alone respond, as in the prayers generally, but when it is also for the minister to use, it should be always printed in Roman.

American Church, The (officially, "The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America"), is that branch of the One, Holy, Catholic, Apostolic Church in America which traces its Apostolic origin through the Church of England. It is in communion and in agreement in doctrine, discipline, and worship with the Church of England, which it venerates as its motherChurch, while being at the same time as entirely independent of it as any daughter can be who has left her mother's home and is mistress of a house and family of her own. Through the Church of England this Church has affiliations with the whole Church of the West. In its Creeds and Liturgy and Discipline it occupies the ground which is common to all the churches of CHRIST from the beginning. As having cast off the errors of Rome, it is so far in sympathy with those bodies of Christians

who, since the Reformation of the sixteenth century, have been known as Protestant and Reformed.

The history of the Church in America is a story of full three hundred years, for it was in the year 1578 that on the shores of Frobisher's Straits (named in honor of the admiral in command) "Master Walfall celebrated a communion upon land, at the partaking whereof were the captain and many others with him. The celebration of the Divine mystery was the first signs, seals, and confirmation of CHRIST's death and passion ever known in these quarters." The first known baptisms in English America were those of Virginia Dare, the granddaughter of Governor White, and "Manteo the savage," both baptized on shipboard off Roanoke Island, on the coast of North Carolina, both baptized by White, the governor of Raleigh's second colony. Another layman, Sir Thomas Hariat, records his use of the Prayer-Book among "the poor infidels" in 1585,-one of "the first lay-readers in the American Church." The next date takes us north again. In 1605 an expedition sailed from Bristol, under Captain Richard Weymouth, whose declared object was "the promulgating of GOD's holy Church by planting Christianity," and which sailed up the Penobscot and erected a cross near the site of the present town of Belfast. attempt failed, but two years later another effort promised better results. In August, 1607, a company, among whom was the Rev. Richard Seymour, landed on an island at the mouth of the Sagadahock, or Kennebec, and, besides fifty houses and a fort and store-house, built a church. The severity

This

of the climate, and a fire that destroyed their store-house and church, disheartened them, and they returned to England the next season. This was thirteen years before the celebrated Pilgrim Fathers landed on Plymouth Rock. The same year, 1607, the first permanent settlement was effected in Virginia. In May, 1607, under Mr. Robert Hunt, a priest of the Church of England, the first services were held, and a church begun at Jamestown in Virginia. Services were held at first "under an awning and in an old cotton tent. This," says Captain John Smith, "was our church till we built a homely thing like a barn, where we had daily common prayer morning and evening, every Sunday two sermons, and every three months the Holy Communion till our minister died. But our prayers daily, with an homily on Sundays, we continued till more preachers came. With liberal gifts of money and land the Church in Virginia was in a fair way to prosper, though the disturbances at home told upon the colonies, and the clergy who came out were by no means all that they should have been. Among those who deserve to be remembered were Buck and Whitaker, who succeeded Mr. Hunt. Whitaker has been named the

Apostle of Virginia. He it was who bap