are advantages in permitting events to chance, superior to those, which would or could arise from regulation. In all these cases also, though events rise up in the way of chance, it is by appointment that they do so.

place from the beginning of life, must, er hypothesi, be previous to the merit or demerit of the persons upon whom it falls, can it be better disposed of than by chance? Parentage is that sort of chance: yet it is the commanding circumstance which in general fixes each man's place in civil life, along with every thing which appertains to its distinctions. It may be the result of a beneficial rule, that the fortunes or honours of the father devolve upon the son; and, as it should seem, of a still more necessary rule, that the low or laborious condition of the parent be communicated to his family; but with respect to the successor himsen, it is the drawing of a ticket in a lottery. Inequali ties, therefore, of fortune, at least the greatest part of them, viz. those which attend us from our birth, and depend upon our birth, may be left, as they are left, to chance, without any just cause for questioning the regency of a supreme Disposer of events.

In other events, and such as are independent of human will, the reasons for this preference of uncertainty to rule, appear to be still stronger. For example: it seems to be expedient that the period of human life should be uncertain. Did mortality follow any fixed rule, it would produce a security in those that were at a distance from it, which would lead to the greatest disorders; and a horror in those who approached it, similar to that which a condemned prisoner feels on the night before his execution. But, that death be uncertain, the young must sometimes die as well as the old. Also were deaths never sudden, they who are in health would be too confident of life. The strong and the active, who want most to be warned and checked, would live without apprehension or re- But not only the donation, when by the necesstraint. On the other hand, were sudden deathssity of the case they must be gifts, but even the very frequent, the sense of constant jeopardy acquirability of civil advantages, ought, perhaps, would interfere too much with the degree of ease in a considerable degree, to lie at the mercy of and enjoyment intended for us; and human life chance. Some would have all the virtuous rich, be too precarious for the business and interests or, at least, removed from the evils of poverty, which belong to it. There could not be depend- without perceiving, I suppose, the consequence, ance either upon our own lives, or the lives of that all the poor must be wicked. And how such those with whom we were connected, sufficient a society could be kept in subjection to governto carry on the regular offices of human society.ment has not been shown: for the poor, that is, The manner, therefore, in which death is made to occur, conduces to the purposes of admonition, without overthrowing the necessary stability of human affairs.

Disease being the forerunner of death, there is the same reason for its attacks coming upon us under the appearance of chance, as there is for uncertainty in the time of death itself.

they who seek their subsistence by constant manual labour, must still form the mass of the community; otherwise the necessary labour of life could not be carried on; the work would not be done, which the wants of mankind in a state of civilization, and still more in a state of refinement, require to be done.

It appears to be also true, that the exigencies of The seasons are a mixture of regularity and social life call not only for an original diversity of chance. They are regular enough to authorize external circumstances, but for a mixture of dif expectation, whilst their being, in a considerable ferent faculties, tastes, and tempers. Activity and degree, irregular, induces, on the part of the cul- contemplation, restlessness and quiet, courage and tivators of the soil, a necessity for personal attend- timidity, ambition and contentedness, not to say ance, for activity, vigilance, precaution. It is even indolence and dulness, are wanted in the this necessity which creates farmers; which world, all conduce to the well going on of human divides the profit of the soil between the owner affairs, just as the rudder, the sails, and the baland the occupier; which by requiring expedients, last, of a ship, all perform their part in the naviby increasing employment, and by rewarding ex-gation. Now, since these characters require for penditure, promotes agricultural arts, and agricultural life, of all modes of life, the best, being the most conducive to health, to virtue, to enjoyment. I believe it to be found in fact, that where the soil is the most fruitful, and the seasons the most constant, there the condition of the cultivators of the earth is most depressed. Uncertainty, therefore, has its use even to those who sometimes complain of it the most. Seasons of scarcity themselves are not without their advantages. They call forth new exertions; they set contrivance and ingenuity at work; they give birth to improvements in agriculture and economy; they promote the investigation and management of public resources.

Again; there are strong intelligible reasons, why there should exist in human society great disparity of wealth and station; not only as these things are acquired in different degrees, but at the first setting out of life. In order, for instance, to answer the various demands of civi! life, there ought to be amongst the members of every civil society a diversity of education, which can only belong to an original diversity of circumstances. As this sort of disparity, which ought to take

their foundation different original talents, different dispositions, perhaps also different bodily constitutions; and since, likewise, it is apparently expedient, that they be promiscuously scattered amongst the different classes of society: can the distribution of talents, dispositions, and the constitutions upon which they depend, be better made than by chance?

The opposites of apparent chance, are constancy and sensible interposition; every degree of secret direction being consistent with it. Now, of constancy, or of fixed and known rules, we have seen in some cases the inapplicability: and incon veniencies which we do not see, might attend their application in other cases.

Of sensible interposition, we may be permitted to remark, that a Providence, always and certainly distinguishable, would be neither more nor less than miracles rendered frequent and common. It is difficult to judge of the state into which this would throw us. It is enough to say, that it would cast us upon a quite different dispensation from that under which we live. It would be a total and radical change. And the change would deeply

know that it would be necessary to look for any other account of it, than what, if it may be called an account, is contained in the answer, that events rise up by chance. But since the contrivances of nature decidedly evince intention; and since the course of the world and the contrivances of nature have the same author; we are, by the force of this

affect, or perhaps subvert, the whole conduct of human affairs. I can readily believe, that, other circumstances being adapted to it, such a state might be better than our present state. It may be the state of other beings; it may be ours hereafter. But the question with which we are now concerned is, how far it would be consistent with our condition, supposing it in other respects to re-connexion, led to believe, that the appearance, unmain as it is? And in this question there seem to be reasons of great moment on the negative side. For instance: so long as bodily labour continues, on so many accounts, to be necessary for the bulk of mankind, any dependency upon supernatural aid, by unfixing those motives which promote exertion, or by relaxing those habits which engender patient industry, might introduce negligence, inactivity, and disorder, into the most useful occupations of human life; and thereby deteriorate the condition of human life itself.

der which events take place, is reconcilable with the supposition of design on the part of the Deity. It is enough that they be reconcilable with this supposition; and it is undoubtedly true, that they may be reconcilable, though we cannot reconcile them. The mind, however, which contemplates the works of nature, and, in those works, sees so much of means directed to ends, of beneficial effects brought about by wise expedients, of concerted trains of causes terminating in the happiest results; so much, in a word, of counsel, intention, As moral agents, we should experience a still and benevolence; a mind, I say, drawn into the greater alteration; of which more will be said un-habit of thought which these observations excite, der the next article.

can hardly turn its view to the condition of our own species, without endeavouring to suggest to itself some purpose, some design, for which the state in which we are placed is fitted, and which it is made to serve. Now we assert the most probable supposition to be, that it is a state of moral probation; and that many things in it suit with this hypothesis, which suit no other. It is not a state of unmixed happiness, or of happiness simply: it is not a state of designed misery, or of

Although therefore the Deity, who possesses the power of winding and turning, as he pleases, the course of causes which issue from himself, do in fact interpose to alter or intercept effects, which without such interposition would have taken place; yet it is by no means incredible, that his providence, which always rests upon final good, may have made a reserve with respect to the manifestation of his interference, a part of the very plan which he has appointed for our terrestrial exist-misery simply: it is not a state of retribution: it ence, and a part conformable with, or, in some is not a state of punishment. It suits with none sort, required by, other parts of the same plan. It of these suppositions. It accords much better with is at any rate evident, that a large and ample pro- the idea of its being a condition calculated for the vince remains for the exercise of Providence, production, exercise, and improvement of moral without its being naturally perceptible by us; be- qualities, with a view to a future state, in which cause obscurity, when applied to the interruption these qualities, after being so produced, exercised, of laws, bears a necessary proportion to the imper- and improved, may, by a new and more favouring fection of our knowledge when applied to the laws constitution of things, receive their reward, or themselves, or rather to the effects which these become their own. If it be said, that this is to laws, under their various and incalculable combi- enter upon a religious rather than a philosophical nations, would of their own accord produce. And consideration; I answer, that the name of Reliif it be said, that the doctrine of Divine Provi-gion ought to form no objection, if it shall turn dence, by reason of the ambiguity under which its out to be the case, that the more religious our exertions present themselves, can be attended views are, the more probability they contain. The with no practical influence upon our conduct; degree of beneficence, of benevolent intention, and that, although we believe ever so firmly that there of power, exercised in the construction of sensitive is a Providence, we must prepare, and provide, beings, goes strongly in favour, not only of a creand act, as if there were none: I answer, that this ative, but of a continuing care, that is, of a ruling is admitted; and that we farther allege, that so to Providence. The degree of chance which appears prepare, and so to provide, is consistent with the to prevail in the world, requires to be reconciled most perfect assurance of the reality of a Provi- with this hypothesis. Now it is one thing to dence: and not only so, but that it is probably, one maintain the doctrine of Providence along with advantage of the present state of our information, that of a future state, and another thing without that our provisions and preparations are not dis-it. In my opinion the two doctrines must stand turbed by it. Or if it be still asked, of what use at all then is the doctrine, if it neither alter our measures nor regulate our conduct? I answer again, that it is of the greatest use, but that it is a doctrine of sentiment and piety, not (immediately at least) of action or conduct; that it applies to the consolation of men's minds, to their devotions, to the excitement of gratitude, the support of patience, the keeping alive and the strengthening of every motive for endeavouring to please our Maker; and that these are great uses.

OF ALL VIEWS under which human life has ever been considered, the most reasonable in my judgment is that, which regards it as a state of probation. If the course of the world was separated from the contrivances of nature, I do not

or fall together. For although more of this apparent chance may perhaps, upon other principles, be accounted for, than is generally supposed, yet a future state alone rectifies all disorders: and if it can be shown, that the appearance of disorder is consistent with the uses of life as a preparatory state, or that in some respects it promotes these uses, then, so far as this hypothesis may be accepted, the ground of the difficulty is done away.

In the wide scale of human condition there is not perhaps one of its manifold diversities, which does not bear upon the design here suggested. Virtue is infinitely various. There is no situation in which a rational being is placed, from that of the best instructed Christian, down to the condition of the rudest barbarian, which affords

man world, is distributed amongst the individuals of the species. "This life being a state of probation, it is immaterial," says Rousseau, “what kind of trials we experience in it, provided they produce their effects." Of two agents who stand indifferent to the moral Governor of the universe, one may be exercised by riches, the other by poverty. The treatment of these two shall appear to be very opposite, whilst in truth it is the same: for though, in many respects, there be great disparity between the conditions assigned, in one main article there may be none, viz. in that they are alike trials; have both their duties and temptations, not less arduous or less dangerous in one case than the other; so that if the final award follow the character, the original distribution of the circumstances under which that cha

not room for moral agency; for the acquisition, exercise, and display of voluntary qualities, good and bad. Health and sickness, enjoyment and suffering, riches and poverty, knowledge and ignorance, power and subjection, liberty and bondage, civilization and barbarity, have all their offices and duties, all serve for the formation of character; for when we speak of a state of trial, it must be remembered, that characters are not only tried, or proved, or detected, but that they are generated also, and formed, by circumstances. The best dispositions may subsist under the most depressed, the most afflicted fortunes. A WestIndian slave, who, amidst his wrongs, retains his benevolence, I, for my part, look upon as amongst the foremost of human candidates for the rewards of virtue. The kind master of such a slave, that is, he who, in the exercise of an inordinate autho-racter is formed, may be defended upon principles rity, postpones, in any degree, his own interest to his slave's comfort, is likewise a meritorious character; but still he is inferior to his slave. All however which I contend for, is, that these destinies, opposite as they may be in every other view, are both trials; and equally such. The observation may be applied to every other condition; to the whole range of the scale, not excepting even its lowest extremity. Savages appear to us all alike; but it is owing to the distance at which we view savage life that we perceive in it no discrimination of character. I make no doubt, but that moral qualities, both good and bad, are called into action as much, and that they subsist in as great variety, in these inartificial societies, as they are, or do, in polished life. Certain at least it is, that the good and ill treatment which each individual meets with, depends more upon the choice and voluntary conduct of those about him, than it does or ought to do, under regular civil institutions, and the coercion of public laws. So again, to turn our eyes to the other end of the scale; namely, that part of it which is occupied by mankind enjoying the benefits of learning, to gether with the lights of revelation; there also, the advantage is all along probationary. Christianity itself, I mean the revelation of Christianity, is not only a blessing, but a trial. It is one of the diversified means by which the character is exercised and they who require of Christianity, that the revelation of it should be universal, may possibly be found to require, that one species of probation should be adopted, if not to the exclusion of others, at least to the narrowing of that variety which the wisdom of the Deity hath appointed to this part of his moral economy.*

Now if this supposition be well founded; that is, if it be true, that our ultimate, or our most permanent happiness, will depend, not upon the temporary condition into which we are cast, but upon our behaviour in it; then is it a much more fit subject of chance than we usually allow or apprehend it to be, in what manner the variety of external circumstances, which subsist in the hu

The reader will observe, that I speak of the revelation of Christianity as distinct from Christianity itself. The dispensation may already be universal. That part of mankind which never heard of Christ's name, may nevertheless be redeemed, that is, be placed in a better condition, with respect to their future state, by his in tervention; may be the objects of his benignity and intercession, as well as of the propitiatory virtue of his passion. But this is not "natural theology;" therefore I will not dwell longer upon it.

not only of justice but of equality. What hinders, therefore, but that mankind may draw lots for their condition? They take their portion of faculties and opportunities, as any unknown cause, or concourse of causes, or as causes acting for other purposes, may happen to set them out; but the event is governed by that which depends upon themselves, the application of what they have received. In dividing the talents, no rule was observed; none was necessary in rewarding the use of them, that of the most correct justice. The chief difference at last appears to be that the right use of more talents, i. e. of a greater trust, will be more highly rewarded, than the right use of fewer talents, i. e. of a less trust. And since, for other purposes, it is expedient that there be an inequality of concredited talents here, as well, probably, as an inequality of conditions hereafter, though all remuneratory; can any rule, adapted to that inequality, be more agreeable, even to our apprehensions of distributive justice, than this is?

We have said, that the appearance of casualty, which attends the occurrences and events of life, not only does not interfere with its uses, as a state of probation, but that it promotes these uses.

Passive virtues, of all others the severest and the most sublime; of all others, perhaps, the most acceptable to the Deity; would, it is evident, be excluded from a constitution, in which happiness and misery regularly followed virtue and vice. Patience and composure under distress, affliction, and pain; a steadfast keeping up of our confidence in God, and of our reliance upon his final goodness, at the time when every thing present is adverse and discouraging; and (what is no less difficult to retain) a cordial desire for the happiness of others, even when we are deprived of our own: these dispositions, which constitute, perhaps, the perfection of our moral nature, would not have found their proper office and object in a state of avowed retribution; and in which, consequently, endurance of evil would be only submission to punishment.

Again: one man's sufferings may be another man's trial. The family of a sick parent is a school of filial piety. The charities of domestic life, and not only these, but all the social virtues, are called out by distress. But then, misery, to be the proper object of mitigation, or of that benevolence which endeavours to relieve, must be really or apparently casual. It is upon such sufferings alone that benevolence can operate. For were there no evils in the world but what were punishments, properly and intelligibly such, be

nevolence would only stand in the way of justice. | the tendons of the wrist and instep, the slit or perSuch evils, consistently with the administration forated muscles at the hands and feet, the knitting of moral government, could not be prevented or of the intestines to the mesentery, the course of alleviated. that is to say, could not be remitted in the chyle into the blood, and the constitution of whole or in part, except by the authority which the sexes as extended throughout the whole of inflicted them, or by an appellate or superior autho- the animal creation. To these instances, the rity. This consideration, which is founded in our reader's memory will go back, as they are severalmost acknowledged apprehensions of the nature ly set forth in their places; there is not one of the of penal justice, may possess its weight in the number which I do not think decisive; not one divine counsels. Virtue perhaps is the greatest which is not strictly mechanical: nor have I read of all ends. In human beings, relative virtues or heard of any solution of these appearances, form a large part of the whole. Now relative which, in the smallest degree, shakes the concluvirtue presupposes, not only the existence of evil, sion that we build upon them. without which it could have no object, no material, to work upon, but that evils be, apparently at least, misfortunes; that is, the effects of apparent chance. It may be in pursuance, therefore, and in furtherance of the same scheme of probation, that the evils of life are made so to present themselves.

But, of the greatest part of those, who, either in this book or any other, read arguments to prove the existence of a God, it will be said, that they leave off only where they began; that they were. never ignorant of this great truth, never doubted of it; that it does not therefore appear, what is gained by researches from which no new opinion I have already observed, that when we let in re- is learnt, and upon the subject of which no proofs ligious considerations, we often let in light upon were wanted. Now I answer that, by investigathe difficulties of nature. So in the fact now to tion, the following points are always gained, in be accounted for, the degree of happiness, which favour of doctrines even the most generally acwe usually enjoy in this life, may be better suited knowledged, (supposing them to be true,) viz. to a state of trial and probation, than a greater de- stability and impression. Occasions will arise to gree would be. The truth is, we are rather too try the firmness of our most habitual opinions. much delighted with the world, than too little. And upon these occasions, it is a matter of incalImperfect, broken, and precarious, as our plea-culable use to feel our foundation; to find a support sures are, they are more than sufficient to attach us to the eager pursuit of them. A regard to a future state can hardly keep its place as it is. If we were designed, therefore, to be influenced by that regard, might not a more indulgent system, a higher, or more uninterrupted state of gratification, have interfered with the design! At least it seems expedient, that mankind should be susceptible of this influence, when presented to them: that the condition of the world should not be such as to exclude its operation, or even to weaken it more than it does. In a religious view, (however we may complain of them in every other,) privation, disappointment, and satiety, are not without the most salutary tendencies.

CHAPTER XXVII.

Conclusion.

in argument for what we had taken up upon authority. In the present case, the arguments upon which the conclusion rests, are exactly such, as a truth of universal concern ought to rest upon, "They are sufficiently open to the views, and capacities of the unlearned, at the same time that they acquire new strength and lustre from the discoveries of the learned." If they had been altogether abstruse and recondite, they would not have found their way to the understandings of the mass of mankind; if they had been merely popular, they might have wanted solidity.

But, secondly, what is gained by research in the stability of our conclusion, is also gained from it in impression. Physicians tell us, that there is a great deal of difference between taking a medicine, and the medicine getting into the constitution. A difference not unlike which, obtains with respect to those great moral propositions, which ought to form the directing principles of human conduct. It is one thing to assent to a proposition of this sort; another, and a very different thing, In all cases, wherein the mind feels itself in to have properly imbibed its influence. I take the danger of being confounded by variety, it is sure case to be this perhaps almost every man living to rest upon a few strong points, or perhaps upon has a particular train of thought, into which his a single instance. Amongst a multitude of proofs mind glides and falls, when at leisure from the it is one that does the business. If we observe in impressions and ideas that occasionally excite it; any argument, that hardly two minds fix upon perhaps, also, the train of thought here spoken of, the same instance, the diversity of choice shows more than any other thing, determines the chathe strength of the argument, because it shows racter. It is of the utmost consequence, therefore, the number and competition of the examples. that this property of our constitution be well reguThere is no subject in which the tendency to lated. Now it is by frequent or continued medidwell upon select or single topics is so usual, be- tation upon a subject, by placing a subject in difcause there is no subject, of which, in its full ex-ferent points of view, by induction of particulars, tent, the latitude is so great, as that of natural by variety of examples, by applying principles to history applied to the proof of an intelligent Cre- the solution of phenomena, by dwelling upon ator. For my part, I take my stand in human proofs and consequences, that mental exercise is anatomy; and the examples of mechanism I drawn into any particular channel. It is by these should be apt to draw out from the copious cata-means, at least, that we have any power over it. logue which it supplies, are the pivot upon which The train of spontaneous thought, and the choice the head turns, the ligament within the socket of of that train, may be directed to different ends, the hip-joint, the pully or trochlear muscles of the and may appear to be more or less judiciously fixeye, the epiglottis, the bandages which tie downed, according to the purpose, in respect of which