ceeds from intelligence, from mind, from coun- for the business and interests which belong to sel, from design. it. There could not be dependence either upNow, when this one cause of the appearance on our own lives, or the lives of those with of chance, viz. the ignorance of the observer, whom we were connected, sufficient to carry on comes to be applied to the operations of the the regular offices of human society. The manDeity, it is easy to foresee how fruitful it must ner, therefore, in which death is made to ocprove of difficulties and of seeming confusion. cur, conduces to the purposes of admonition, It is only to think of the Deity, to perceive without overthrowing the necessary stability what variety of objects, what distance of time, of human affairs. what extent of space and action, his counsels Disease being the forerunner of death, there may, or rather must, comprehend. Can it be is the same reason for its attacks coming upwondered at, that, of the purposes which dwell on us under the appearance of chance, as there in such a mind as this, so small a part should is for uncertainty in the time of death itself. be known to us? It is only necessary, there- The seasons are a mixture of regularity and fore, to bear in our thought, that in proportion chance. They are regular enough to authoto the inadequateness of our information, will rize expectation, whilst their being, in a conbe the quantity, in the world, of apparent siderable degree, irregular, induces, on the part of the cultivators of the soil, a necessity

chance.

III. In a great variety of cases, and of cases for personal attendance, for activity, vigilance, comprehending numerous subdivisions, it ap- precaution. It is this necessity which creates pears, for many reasons, to be better that farmers; which divides the profit of the soil events rise up by chance, or, more properly between the owner and the occupier; which, speaking, with the appearance of chance, than by requiring expedients, by increasing employaccording to any observable ruie whatever. ment, and by rewarding expenditure, promotes This is not seldom the case even in human ar- agricultural arts and agricultural life, of all rangements. Each person's place and precedency, in a public meeting, may be determined by lot. Work and labour may be allotted. Tasks and burdens may be allotted:

-Operumque laborein
Partibus æquabat justis, aut sorte trahebat.

modes of life the best, being the most conducive to health, to virtue, to enjoyment. I believe it to be found in fact, that where the soil is the most fruitful, and the seasons the most constant, there the condition of the cultivators of the earth is the most depressed. Uncertainty, therefore, has its use even to those who Military service and station may be allotted. sometimes complain of it the most. Seasons The distribution of provision may be made by of scarcity themselves are not without their lot, as it is in a sailor's mess; in some cases advantages. They call forth new exertions; also, the distribution of favours may be made they set contrivance and ingenuity at work; by lot. In all these cases, it seems to be ac- they give birth to improvements in agriculture knowledged, that there are advantages in per- and economy; they promote the investigation mitting events to chance, superior to those, and management of public resources. which would or could arise from regulation. Again; there are strong intelligible reaIn all these cases also, though events rise up sons, why there should exist in human society in the way of chance, it is by appointment that great disparity of wealth and station; not onthey do so. ly as these things are acquired in different deIn other events, and such as are independ-grees, but at the first setting out of life. In ent of human will, the reasons for this prefer- order, for instance, to answer the various deence of uncertainty to rule, appear to be still mands of civil life, there ought to be amongst stronger. For example: it seems to be expe- the members of every civil society a diversity dient that the period of human life should be of education, which can only belong to an oriuncertain. Did mortality follow any fixed rule, ginal diversity of circumstances. As this sort it would produce a security in those that were of disparity, which ought to take place from at a distance from it, which would lead to the the beginning of life, must, ex hypothesi, be greatest disorders; and a horror in those who previous to the merit or demerit of the perapproached it, similar to that which a con- sons upon whom it falls, can it be better disdemned prisoner feels on the night before his posed of than by chance? Parentage is that execution. But, that death be uncertain, the sort of chance: yet it is the commanding cirvoung must sometimes die, as well as the old. cumstance which in general fixes each man's Also, were deaths never sudden, they who are place in civil life, along with every thing which in health would be too confident of life. The appertains to its distinctions. It may be the strong and the active, who want most to be result of a beneficial rule, that the fortunes or warned and checked, would live without ap- honours of the father devolve upon the son; prehension or restraint. On the other hand, and, as it should seem, of a still more neceswere sudden deaths very frequent, the sense sary rule, that the low or laborious condition of constant jeopardy would interfere too much of the parent be communicated to his family; with the degree of ease and enjoyment intend- but with respect to the successor himself, it is ed for us; and human life be too precarious the drawing of a ticket in a lottery. Inequa.

lities therefore, of fortune, at least the great est part of them, viz. those which attend us from our birth, and depend upon our birth, may be left, as they are left, to chance, without any just cause for questioning the regency of a supreme Disposer of events.

might be better than our present state.
may be the state of other beings; it may be
ours hereafter. But the question with which
we are now concerned is, how far it would be
consistent with our condition, supposing it in
other respects to remain as it is ? And in this
question there seem to be reasons of great
moment on the negative side. For instance :
so long as bodily labour continues, on so many
accounts, to be necessary for the bulk of man-
kind, any dependency upon supernatural aid,
by unfixing those motives which promote ex-
ertion, or by relaxing those habits which en-
gender patient industry, might introduce ne-
gligence, inactivity and disorder, into the most
useful occupations of human life; and there-
by deteriorate the condition of human life it-
self.

But not only the donation, when by the necessity of the case they must be gifts, but even the acquirability of civil advantages, ought, perhaps, in a considerable degree, to lie at the mercy of chance. Some would have all the virtuous rich, or, at least, removed from the evils of poverty, without perceiving, I suppose, the consequence, that all the poor must be wicked. And how such a society could be kept in subjection to government, has not been shown for the poor, that is, they who seek their subsistence by constant manual labour, must still form the mass of the community; otherwise the necessary labour of life could not be carried on; the work would not be done, which the wants of mankind in a state of civilization, and still more in a state of re-sesses the power of winding and turning, as finement, require to be done,

It appears to be also true, that the exigencies of social life call not only for an original diversity of external circumstances, but for a mixture of different faculties, tastes, and tempers. Activity and contemplation, restlessness and quiet, courage and timidity, ambition and contentedness, not to say even indolence and dulness, are all wanted in the world, all conduce to the well going on of human affairs, just as the rudder, the sails, and the ballast of a ship, all perform their part in the navigation. Now, since these characters require for their foundation different original talents, different dispositions, perhaps also different bodily constitutions; and since, likewise, it is apparently expedient, that they be promiscuously scattered amongst the different classes of society can the distribution of talents, dispositions, and the constitutions upon which they depend, be better made than by chance? The opposites of apparent chance, are constancy and sensible interposition; every degree of secret direction being consistent with it. Now of constancy, or of fixed and known rules, we have seen in some cases the inapplicability and inconveniences which we do not see, might attend their application in other

cases.

Of sensible interposition, we may be permitted to remark, that a Providence, always and certainly distinguishable, would be neither more nor less than miracles rendered frequent and common. It is difficult to judge of the state into which this would throw us. It is enough to say, that it would cast us upon a quite different dispensation from that under which we live. It would be a total and radical change. And the change would deeply affect, or perhaps subvert, the whole conduct of human affairs. I can readily believe, that, other eircumstances being adapted to it, such a state

As moral agents, we should experience a still greater alteration; of which, more will be said under the next article.

Although, therefore, the Deity, who pos

he pleases, the course of causes which issue from himself, do in fact interpose to alter or intercept effects, which without such interposition would have taken place; yet it is by no means incredible, that his Providence, which always rests upon final good, may have made a reserve with respect to the manifestation of his interference, a part of the very plan which he has appointed for our terrestrial existence, and a part conformable with, or in some sort required by, other parts of the same plan. It is at any rate evident, that a large and ample province remains for the exercise of Providence, without its being naturally perceptible by us; because obscurity, when applied to the interruption of laws, bears a necessary proportion to the imperfection of our knowledge when applied to the laws themselves, or rather to the effects which these laws, under their various and incalculable combinations, would of their own accord produce. And if it be said, that the doctrine of Divine Providence, by reason of the ambiguity under which its exertions present themselves, can be attended with no practical influence upon our conduct; that, although we believe ever so firmly that there is a Providence, we must prepare, and provide and act, as if there were none; I answer, that this is admitted; and that we further allege, that so to prepare, and so to provide, is consistent with the most perfect assurance of the reality of a Providence: and not only so, but that it is, probably, one advantage of the present state of our information, that our provisions and preparations are not disturbed by it. Or if it be still asked, Of what use at all then is the doctrine, if it neither alter our measures nor regulate our conduct? I answer again, that it is of the greatest use, but that it is a doctrine of sentiment and piety, not (immediately at least) of action or cons

The

duct; that it applies to the consolation of not only of a creative, but of a continuing men's minds, to their devotions, to the ex-care, that is, of a ruling Providence. citement of gratitude, the support of patience, degree of chance which appears to prevail in the keeping alive and the strengthening of the world, requires to be reconciled with this every motive for endeavouring to please our hypothesis. Now it is one thing to maintain Maker; and that these are great uses.

the doctrine of Providence along with that of OF ALL VIEWs under which human life a future state, and another thing without it. has ever been considered, the most reasonable, In my opinion, the two doctrines must stand in my judgment, is that which regards it as a or fall together. For although more of this state of probation. If the course of the world apparent chance may perhaps, upon other was separated from the contrivances of nature, principles, be accounted for than is generalI do not know that it would be necessary to ly supposed, yet a future state alone reclook for any other account of it than what, tifies all disorders; and if it can be shown, if it may be called an account, is contained that the appearance of disorder is consistent in the answer, that events rise up by chance. with the uses of life as a preparatory state, But since the contrivances of nature decidedly or that in some respects it promotes these evince intention; and since the course of the uses, then, so far as this hypothesis may be world and the contrivances of nature have accepted, the ground of the difficulty is done the same author; we are, by the force of this away. connexion, led to believe, that the appearance, In the wide scale of human condition, there under which events take place, is reconcileable is not perhaps one of its manifold diversities, with the supposition of design on the part of which does not bear upon the design here sug the Deity. It is enough that they be recon- gested. Virtue is infinitely various. There cileable with this supposition; and it is un- is no situation in which a rational being is doubtedly true, that they may be reconcileable, placed, from that of the best instructed Christhough we cannot reconcile them. The mind, tian, down to the condition of the rudest barhowever, which contemplates the works of barian, which affords not room for moral agennature, and, in those works, sees so much cy; for the acquisition, exercise, and display, of means directed to ends, of beneficial ef- of voluntary qualities, good and bad. Health fects brought about by wise expedients, of and sickness, enjoyment and suffering, riches concerted trains of causes terminating in the and poverty, knowledge and ignorance, power happiest results; so much, in a word, of coun- and subjection, liberty and bondage, civilizasel, intention, and benevolence; a mind, I tion and barbarity, have all their offices and say, drawn into the habit of thought which duties, all serve for the formation of characthese observations excite, can hardly turn its ter: for when we speak of a state of trial, view to the condition of our own species, it must be remembered, that characters are without endeavouring to suggest to itself some not only tried, or proved, or detected, but that purpose, some design, for which the state in they are generated also, and formed, by cirwhich we are placed is fitted, and which it is cumstances. The best dispositions may submade to serve. Now we assert the most pro- sist under the most depressed, the most afflictbable supposition to be, that it is a state of ed fortunes. A West-Indian slave, who, amidst moral probation; and that many things in his wrongs, retains his benevolence, I, for my it suit with this hypothesis, which suit no part, look upon as amongst the foremost of other. It is not a state of unmixed happiness, human candidates for the rewards of virtue. or of happiness simply; it is not a state of The kind master of such a slave, that is, he designed misery, or of misery simply; it is who, in the exercise of an inordinate authorinot a state of retribution; it is not a state of ty, postpones, in any degree, his own interest punishment. It suits with none of these sup- to his slave's comfort, is likewise a meritorious positions. It accords much better with the character: but still he is inferior to his slave. idea of its being a condition calculated for the All however which I contend for, is, that these production, exercise, and improvement of mo- destinies, opposite as they may be in every ral qualities, with a view to a future state, in other view, are both trials; and equally such. which these qualities, after being so produced, The observation may be applied to every other exercised, and improved, may, by a new and condition; to the whole range of the scale, not more favouring constitution of things, receive excepting even its lowest extremity. Savages their reward, or become their own. If it be appear to us all alike; but it is owing to the said, that this is to enter upon a religious distance at which we view savage life, that we rather than a philosophical consideration; I perceive in it no discrimination of character. answer, that the name of Religion ought to I make no doubt, but that moral qualities, both form no objection, if it shall turn out to be good and bad, are called into action as much, the case, that the more religious our views and that they subsist in as great variety, in are, the more probability they contain. The these inartificial societies, as they are, or do, degree of beneficence, of benevolent intention, in polished life. Certain at least it is, that the and of power, exercised in the construction good and ill treatment which each individual of sensitive beings, goes strongly in favour, meets with, depends more upon the choice and

voluntary conduct of those about him, than it does or ought to do, under regular civil institutions, and the coercion of public laws. So again, to turn our eyes to the other end of the scale; namely, that part of it which is occupied by mankind enjoying the benefits of learning, together with the lights of revelation; there also, the advantage is all along probationary. Christianity itself, I mean the reve lation of Christianity, is not only a blessing, but a trial. It is one of the diversified means by which the character is exercised and they who require of Christianity, that the revelation of it should be universal, may possibly be found to require, that one species of probation should be adopted, if not to the exclusion of others, at least to the narrowing of that variety which the wisdom of the Deity hath appointed to this part of his moral economy.*

sary: in rewarding the use of them, that of the most correct justice. The chief difference at last appears to be, that the right use of more talents, i. e. of a greater trust, will be more highly rewarded, than the right use of fewer talents, i. e. of a less trust. And since, for other purposes, it is expedient that there be an inequality of concredited talents here, as well, probably, as an inequality of conditions hereafter, though all remuneratory; can any rule, adapted to that inequality, be more agreeable, even to our apprehensions of distributive justice, than this is?

We have said, that the appearance of casualty, which attends the occurrences and events of life, not only does not interfere with its uses, as a state of probation, but that it promotes these uses.

Passive virtues, of all others the severest and the most sublime; of all others, perhaps, the most acceptable to the Deity; would, it is evident, be excluded from a constitution, in which happiness and misery regularly followed virtue and vice. Patience and composure under distress, affliction, and pain; a steadfast keeping up of our confidence in God, and of our reliance upon his final goodness, at the time when every thing present is adverse and discouraging; and (what is no less difficult to retain) a cordial desire for the happiness of others, even when we are deprived of our own; these dispositions, which constitute, per

not have found their proper office and object in a state of avowed retribution; and in which, consequently, endurance of evil would be only submission to punishment.

Now, if this supposition be well founded; that is, if it be true, that our ultimate, or our most permanent happiness, will depend, not upon the temporary condition into which we are cast, but upon our behaviour in it; then is it a much more fit subject of chance than we usually allow or apprehend it to be, in what manner the variety of external circumstances, which subsist in the human world, is distributed amongst the individuals of the species. "This life being a state of probation, it is immaterial," says Rousseau, "what kind of trials we experience in it, provided they produce their effects." Of two agents who stand in-haps, the perfection of our moral nature, would different to the moral Governor of the universe, one may be exercised by riches, the other by poverty. The treatment of these two shall appear to be very opposite, whilst in truth it is the same; for though, in many respects, Again; one man's sufferings may be anothere be great disparity between the condi- ther man's trial. The family of a sick parent tions assigned, in one main article there may is a school of filial piety. The charities of do. be none, viz. in that they are alike trials; have mestic life, and not only these, but all the soboth their duties and temptations, not less ar-cial virtues, are called out by distress. But duous or less dangerous in one case than the then, misery, to be the proper object of mitiother; so that if the final award follow the gation, or of that benevolence which endea character, the original distribution of the cir-vours to relieve, must be really or apparently cumstances under which that character is form-casual. It is upon such sufferings alone that ed, may be defended upon principles not only benevolence can operate. For were there no of justice but of equality. What hinders, evils in the world, but what were punishtherefore, but that mankind may draw lots for ments, properly and intelligibly such, benevotheir condition? They take their portion of lence would only stand in the way of justice. faculties and opportunities, as any unknown Such evils, consistently with the administracause, or concourse of causes, or as causes act-tion of moral government, could not be preing for other purposes, may happen to set them vented or alleviated; that is to say, could not out: but the event is governed by that which be remitted in whole or in part, except by the depends upon themselves, the application of authority which inflicted them, or by an apwhat they have received. In dividing the ta- pellate or superior authority. This considelents, no rule was observed: none was neces-ration, which is founded in our most acknow. ledged apprehensions of the nature of penal

The reader will observe, that I speak of the revela-justice, may possess its weight in the Divine tion of Christianity as distinct from Christianity itself. The dispensation may already be universal, That part counsels. Virtue perhaps is the greatest of of mankind which never heard of CHRIST's name, may all ends. In human beings, relative virtues nevertheless be redeemed, that is, be placed in a better form a large part of the whole. Now relative

condition, with respect to their future state, by his inter

vention; may be the objects of his benignity and inter-virtue presupposes, not only the existence of cession, as well as of the propitiatory virtue of his pas- evil, without which it could have no object, no material to work upon, but that evils be,

sion.

But this is not "natural theology;" therefore I will not dwell longer upon it.

apparently at least, misfortunes; that is, the the animal creation. To these instances, the effects of apparent chance. It may be in pur-reader's memory will go back, as they are sesuance, therefore, and in furtherance of the verally set forth in their places; there is not same scheme of probation, that the evils of life are made so to present themselves.

one of the number which I do not think decisive; not one which is not strictly mechanical: nor have I read or heard of any solution of these appearances, which, in the smallest degree, shales the conclusion that we build upon them.

I have already observed, that when we let in religious considerations, we often let in light upon the difficulties of nature. So in the fact now to be accounted for, the degree of happiness, which we usually enjoy in this life, may But, of the greatest part of those, who, eibe better suited to a state of trial and proba-ther in this book or any other, read arguments tion, than a greater degree would be. The to prove the existence of a God, it will be said, truth is, we are rather too much delighted that they leave off only where they began; with the world, than too little. Imperfect, that they were never ignorant of this great broken, and precarious as our pleasures are, truth, never doubted of it; that it does not they are more than sufficient to attach us to therefore appear, what is gained by researches the eager pursuit of them. A regard to a fu- from which no new opinion is learnt, and upture state can hardly keep its place as it is. If on the subject of which no proofs were wantwe were designed therefore to be influenced ed. Now I answer, that, by investigation, the by that regard, might not a more indulgent following points are always gained, in favour system, a higher, or more uninterrupted state of doctrines even the most generally acknowof gratification, have interfered with the de- ledged (supposing them to be true,) viz. stabisign? At least it seems expedient, that man-lity and impression. Occasions will arise to kind should be susceptible of this influence, try the firmness of our most habitual opinwhen presented to them: that the condition of the world should not be such, as to exclude its operation, or even to weaken it more than it does. In a religious view (however we may complain of them in every other,) privation, disappointment, and satiety, are not without the most salutary tendencies.

CHAPTER XXVII.

CONCLUSION.

ions. And upon these occasions, it is a matter of incalculable use to feel our foundation; to find a support in argument for what we had taken up upon authority. In the present case, the arguments upon which the conclusion rests are exactly such, as a truth of universal concern ought to rest upon. "They are suffi ciently open to the views and capacities of the unlearned, at the same time that they acquire new strength and lustre from the discoveries of the learned." If they had been altogether abstruse and recondite, they would not have found their way to the understandings of the mass of mankind; if they had been merely popular, they might have wanted solidity.

In all cases, wherein the mind feels itself in danger of being confounded by variety, it is But, secondly, what is gained by research sure to rest upon a few strong points, or per- in the stability of our conclusion, is also gainhaps upon a single instance. Amongst a mul-ed from it in impression. Physicians tell us, titude of proofs, it is one that does the business. If we observe in any argument, that hardly two minds fix upon the same instance, the diversity of choice shows the strength of the argument, because it shows the number and competition of the examples. There is no subject in which the tendency to dwell upon select or single topics is so usual, because there is no subject, of which, in its full extent, the latitude is so great, as that of natural history applied to the proof of an intelligent Creator. For my part, I take my stand in human anatomy; and the examples of mechanism I should be apt to draw out from the copious catalogue which it supplies are, the pivot upon which the head turns, the ligament within the socket of the hip-joint, the pulley or trochlear muscles of the eye, the epiglottis, the bandages which tie down the tendons of the wrist and instep, the slit or perforated muscles at the hands and feet, the knitting of the intestines to the mesentery, the course of the chyle into the blood, and the constitution of the sexes as extended throughout the whole of

that there is a great deal of difference between taking a medicine, and the medicine getting into the constitution. A difference not unlike which, obtains with respect to those great moral propositions, which ought to form the di recting principles of human conduct. It is one thing to assent to a proposition of this sort; another, and a very different thing, to have properly imbibed its influence. I take the case to be this: perhaps almost every man living has a particular train of thought, int? which his mind glides and falls, when at leisure from the impressions and ideas that occasionally excite it: perhaps, also, the train of thought here spoken of, more than any other thing, determines the character. It is of the utmost consequence, therefore, that this property of our constitution be well regulated. Now it is by frequent or continued meditation upon a subject, by placing a subject in different points of view, by induction of particulars, by variety of examples, by applying principles to the solution of phenomena, by dwel ling upon proofs and consequences, that men