ligious subjects; because this species of writ- ters from the establishment become a majori ing applies solely to the passions, weakens the ty of the people; the establishment itself ought judgment, and contaminates the imagination, to be altered or qualified. If there exists amof its readers; has no tendency whatever to ongst the different sects of the country such assist either the investigation or the impres- a parity of numbers, interest, and power, as to sion of truth on the contrary, whilst it stays render the preference of one sect to the rest, not to distinguish between the authority of and the choice of that sect, a matter of hazar. different religions, it destroys alike the influ-dous success, and of doubtful election, some ence of all. plan similar to that which is meditated in Concerning the admission of dissenters from North America, and which we have describthe established religion to offices and employ-ed in a preceding part of the present chapter, ments in the public service, (which is neces- though encumbered with great difficulties, sary, to render toleration complete,) doubts may perhaps suit better with this divided state have been entertained, with some appearance of public opinion, than any constitution of a of reason. It is possible that such religious national church whatever. In all other situaopinions may be holden, as are utterly incom- tions, the establishment will be strong enough patible with the necessary functions of civil to maintain itself. However, if a test be apgovernment; and which opinions consequent-plicable with justice upon this principle at all, ly disqualify those who maintain them from it ought to be applied in regal governments, exercising any share in its administration. to the chief magistrate himself, whose power There have been enthusiasts who held that might otherwise overthrow or change the esChristianity has abolished all distinction of tablished religion of the country, in opposiproperty, and that she enjoins upon her fol- tion to the will and sentiments of the people. lowers a community of goods. With what tolerable propriety could one of this sect be appointed a judge or a magistrate, whose office it is to decide upon questions of private right, and to protect men in the exclusive enjoyment of their property? It would be equally absurd to intrust a military command to a Quaker, who believes it to be contrary to the Gospel to take up arms. This is possible; therefore it cannot be laid down as an universal truth, that religion is not, in its nature, a cause which will justify exclusion from public employments. When we examine, however, the sects of profess, the professors of that religion may Christianity which actually prevail in the world, we must confess that, with the single exception of refusing to bear arms, we find no tenet in any of them which incapacitates men for the service of the state. It has indeed been asserted, that discordancy of religions, even supposing each religion to be free from any errors that affect the safety or the conduct of government, is enough to render men unfit to act together, in public stations. But upon what argument, or upon what experience, is this assertion founded? I perceive no reason why men of different religious persuasions may not sit upon the same bench, deliberate in the same council, or fight in the same ranks, as well as men of various or opposite opinions upon any controverted topic of natural philosophy, history, or ethics.

The second case of exclusion, and in which, I think, the measure is more easily vindicated, is that of a country in which some disaffection to the subsisting government happens to be connected with certain religious distinctions. The state undoubtedly has a right to refuse its power and its confidence to those who seek its destruction. Wherefore, if the generality of any religious sect entertain dispositions hostile to the constitution, and if government have no other way of knowing its enemies than by the religion which they

justly be excluded from offices of trust and authority. But even here it should be observ. ed, that it is not against the religion that government shuts its doors, but against those political principles, which, however independent they may be of any article of religious faith, the members of that communion are found in fact to hold. Nor would the legis lator make religious tenets the test of men's inclinations towards the state, if he could discover any other that was equally certain and notorious. Thus, if the members of the Romish church, for the most part adhere to the interests, or maintain the right, of a foreign pretender to the crown of these kingdoms; and if there be no way of distinguishing those who do from those who do not retain such dangerous prejudices; government is well There are two cases in which test-laws are warranted in fencing out the whole sect from wont to be applied, and in which, if in any, situations of trust and power. But even in they may be defended. One is, where two or this example, it is not to popery that the laws more religions are contending for establish- object, but to popery as the mark of jacobitment; and where there appears no way of ism; an equivocal indeed and fallacious mark. putting an end to the contest, but by giving but the best and perhaps the only one, that to one religion such a decided superiority in can be devised. But then it should be rememthe legislature and government of the coun-bered, that as the connection between popery try, as to secure it against danger from any other. I own that I should assent to this precaution with many scruples. If the dissen

and jacobitism, which is the sole cause of suspi cion and the sole justification of those severe and jealous laws which have been enacted

CHAPTER XI.

OF POPULATION AND PROVISION; AND OF
AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE, AS SUB-
SERVIENT THERETO.

and glory of nations; the topics which history celebrates, and which alone almost engage the praises and possess the admiration of mankind; have no value farther than as they contribute to this end. When they interfere with it, they are evils, and not the less real for the splendour that surrounds them.

against the professors of that religion, was ac-1" religious tenets; appears to be, not only the cidental in its origin, so probably it will be" most just and liberal, but the wisest and temporary in its duration; and that these re-" safest system, which a state can adopt ; instrictions ought not to continue one day long-" asmuch as it unites the several perfections er than some visible danger renders them ne-" which a religious constitution ought to aim cessary to the preservation of public tranquil-" at:-liberty of conscience, with means of lity. "instruction; the progress of truth, with the After all, it may be asked; Why should not " peace of society; the right of private judg the legislator direct his test against the poli-"ment, with the care of the public safety." tical principles themselves which he wishes to exclude, rather than encounter them through the medium of religious tenets, the only crime and the only danger of which consist in their presumed alliance with the former? Why, for example, should a man be required to renounce transubstantiation, before he be admitted to an office in the state, when it might seem to be sufficient that he abjure the pre- THE final view of all rational politics is, to tender? There are but two answers that can produce the greatest quantity of happiness in be given to the objection which this question a given tract of country. The riches, strength, contains: first, that it is not opinions which the laws fear, so much as inclinations; and, that political inclinations are not so easily detected by the affirmation or denial of any abstract proposition in politics, as by the discovery of the religious creed with which they are wont to be united :-secondly, that when men renounce their religion, they commonly quit all connection with the members of the church which they have left; that church no longer expecting assistance or friendship from them: whereas particular persons might insinuate themselves into offices of trust and authority, by subscribing political assertions, and yet retain their predilection for the interests of the religious sect to which they continued to belong. By which means, government would sometimes find, though it could not accuse the individual, whom it had received into its service, of disaffection to the civil establishment, yet that, through him, it had communicated the aid and influence of a powerful station to a party who were hostile to the constitution. These answers, however, we propose rather than defend. The measure certainly cannot be defended at all, except where the suspected union between certain obnoxious principles in politics, and certain tenets in religion, is nearly universal; in which case, it makes little difference to the subscriber, whether the test be religious or political; and the state is somewhat better secured by the one than the other.

Secondly: although we speak of communities as of sentient beings; although we ascribe to them happiness and misery, desires, interests, and passions; nothing really exists or feels but individuals. The happiness of a people is made up of the happiness of single persons; and the quantity of happiness can only be augmented by increasing the number of the percipients, or the pleasure of their per ceptions.

Thirdly: Notwithstanding that diversity of condition, especially different degrees of plenty, freedom, and security, greatly vary the quantity of happiness enjoyed by the same number of individuals; and notwithstanding that extreme cases may be found, of human beings so galled by the rigours of slavery, that the increase of numbers is only the amplification of misery; yet, within certain limits, and within those limits to which civil life is diver. sified under the temperate governments that obtain in Europe, it may be affirmed, I think, with certainty, that the quantity of happiness produced in any given district, so far depends upon the number of inhabitants, that, in comparing adjoining periods in the same country, The result of our examination of those ge- the collective happiness will be nearly in the neral tendencies, by which every interference exact proportion of the numbers; that is, twice of civil government in matters of religion the number of inhabitants will produce douoight to be tried, is this: "That a compre-ble the quantity of happiness: in distant pe"hensive national religion, guarded by a few riods, and different countries, under great "articles of peace and conformity, together changes or great dissimilitude of civil condi "with a legal provision for the clergy of that tion, although the proportion of enjoyment "religion; and with a complete toleration of may fall much short of that of the numbers, 'all dissenters from the established church, yet still any considerable excess of numbers without any other limitation or exception, will usually carry with it a preponderation of "than what arises from the conjunction of happiness; that, at least, it may and ought "dangerous political dispositions with certain to be assumed, in all political deliberations,

From these principles it follows, that the quantity of happiness in a given district, although it is possible it may be increased, the number of inhabitants remaining the same, is chiefly and most naturally affected by alteration of the numbers: that, consequently, the decay of population is the greatest evil that a state can suffer; and the improvement of it, the object which ought, in all countries, to be aimed at, in preference to every other political purpose whatsoever.

that a larger portion of happiness is enjoyed being improved by cultivation to an extent amongst ten persons, possessing the means of which is unknown; much, however, beyond healthy subsistence, than can be produced by the state of improvement in any country in five persons, under every advantage of power, Europe. In our own, which holds almost the affluence, and luxury. first place in the knowledge and encouragement of agriculture, let it only be supposed that every field in England, of the same original quality with those in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and consequently capable of the same fertility, were by a like management made to yield an equal produce; and it may be asserted, I believe with truth, that the quantity of human provision raised in the island would be increased five-fold. The two principles, therefore, upon which population seems primarily to depend, the fecundity of the The importance of population, and the su- species, and the capacity of the soil, would in periority of it to every other national advan- most, perhaps in all countries, enable it to protage, are points necessary to be inculcated, and ceed much farther than it has yet advanced. to be understood; inasmuch as false estimates, The number of marriageable women, who, in or fantastic notions, of national grandeur, are each country, remain unmarried, afford a comperpetually drawing the attention of states-putation how much the agency of nature in men and legislators from the care of this, the diffusion of human life is cramped and which is, at all times, the true and absolute contracted; and the quantity of waste, neinterest of a country: for which reason, we glected, or mismanaged surface, - together have stated these points with unusual forma- with a comparison, like the preceding, of the lity. We will confess, however, that a competition can seldom arise between the advancement of population and any measure of sober utility; because, in the ordinary progress of human affairs, whatever, in any way, contributes to make a people happier, tends to render them more numerous.

crops raised from the soil in the neighbourhood of populous cities, and under a perfect state of cultivation, with those which lands of equal or superior quality yield in different situations,-will show in what proportion the indigenous productions of the earth are capable of being farther augmented.

In the fecundity of the human, as of every The fundamental proposition upon the subother species of animals, nature has provided ject of population, which must guide every enfor an indefinite multiplication. Mankind deavour to improve it, and from which every have increased to their present number from conclusion concerning it may be deduced, is single pair; the offspring of early marriages, this: "Wherever the commerce between the in the ordinary course of procreation, do more 66 sexes is regulated by marriage, and a provithan replace the parents: in countries, and "sion for that mode of subsistence, to which under circumstances very favourable to sub-" each class of the community is accustomed, sistence, the population has been doubled in" can be procured with ease and certainty, there the space of twenty years; the havoc occasion-" the number of the people will increase; and ed by wars, earthquakes, famine, or pesti-" the rapidity, as well as the extent, of the inlence, is usually repaired in a short time."crease, will be proportioned to the degree These indications sufficiently demonstrate the" in which these causes exist." tendency of nature, in the human species, to This proposition we will draw out into the a continual increase of its numbers. It be- several principles which it contains. comes, therefore, a question that may reason- I. First, the proposition asserts the "neably be propounded, what are the causes which" cessity of confining the intercourse of the confine or check the natural progress of this" sexes to the marriage-union." It is only in multiplication? And the answer which first the marriage-union that this intercourse is sufpresents itself to the thoughts of the inquirer ficiently prolific. Beside which, family estais, that the population of a country must stop blishments alone are fitted to perpetuate a sucwhen the country can maintain no more, that cession of generations. The offspring of a vague is, when the inhabitants are already so nu- and promiscuous concubinage are not only few, merous as to exhaust all the provision which and liable to perish by neglect, but are seldom prethe soil can be made to produce. This, how-pared for, or introduced into situations suited ever, though an insuperable bar, will seldom to the raising of families of their own. Henc be found to be that which actually checks the the advantages of marriages. Now nature, in progress of population in any country of the the constitution of the sexes, has provided a world; because the number of the people have stimulus which will infallibly secure the freseldom, in any country, arrived at this limit, quency of marriages, with all their beneficial or even approached to it. The fertility of the effects upon the state of population, provided ground, in temperate regions, is capable of the male part of the species be prohibited from

Irregular gratifications. This impulse, which | The ease, then, and certainty, with which is sufficient to surmount almost every impedi- the means can be procured, not barely of subment to marriage, will operate in proportion sistence, but of that mode of subsisting which to the difficulty, expense, danger, or infamy, the sense of guilt, or the fear of punishment, which attend licentious indulgences. Wherefore, in countries in which subsistence is become scarce, it behoves the state to watch over the public morals with increased solicitude; for nothing but the instinct of nature, under the restraint of chastity, will induce men to undertake the labour or consent to the sacrifice of personal liberty and indulgence, which the support of a family, in such circumstances, requires.

custom hath in each country established, form the point upon which the state and progress of population chiefly depend. Now, there are three causes which evidently regulate this point: the mode itself of subsisting which prevails in the country; the quantity of provision suited to that mode of subsistence, which is either raised in the country or imported into it; and, lastly, the distribution of that provision.

These three causes merit distinct consideration.

I. The mode of living which actually ob II. The second requisite which our propo- tains in a country. In China, where the insition states as necessary to the success of po- habitants frequent the sea shore, or the banks pulation, is, "the ease and certainty with which of large rivers, and subsist in a great measure "a provision can be procured for that mode of upon fish, the population is described to be ex"subsistence to which each class of the com-cessive. This peculiarity arises, not probably "munity is accustomed." It is not enough from any civil advantages, any care or policy, that men's natural wants be supplied; that a any particular constitution or superior wisdom provision adequate to the real exigencies of of government; but simply from hence, that human life be attainable: habitual superflui- the species of food to which custom hath reconties become actual wants; opinion and fashionciled the desires and inclinations of the inhabiconvert articles of ornament and luxury into tants, is that which, of all others, is procured necessaries of life. And it must not be ex-in the greatest abundance, with the most ease, pected from men in general, at least in the and stands in need of the least preparation. present relaxed state of morals and discipline, The natives of Indostan being confined, by the that they will enter into marriages which de- laws of their religion, to the use of vegetable grade their condition, reduce their mode of li- food, and requiring little except rice, which the ving, deprive them of the accommodations to country produces in plentiful crops; and food, which they have been accustomed, or even of in warm climates, composing the only want of those ornaments or appendages of rank and life; these countries are populous, under all the station which they have been taught to regard injuries of a despotic, and the agitations of an as belonging to their birth, or class, or pro- unsettled government. If any revolution, or fession, or place in society. The same consi- what would be called perhaps refinement of deration, namely, a view to their accustomed manners, should generate in these people a mode of life, which is so apparent in the su- taste for the flesh of animals, similar to what perior order of the people, has no less influ- prevails amongst the Arabian hordes; should ence upon those ranks which compose the mass introduce flocks and herds into grounds which of the community. The kind and quality of are now covered with corn; should teach them food and liquor, the species of habitation, fur- to account a certain portion of this species of niture, and clothing, to which the common food amongst the necessaries of life; the popupeople of each country are habituated, must lation, from this single change, would suffer be attainable with ease and certainty, before in a few years a great diminution: and this marriages will be sufficiently early and gener- diminution would follow, in spite of every ef. al to carry the progress of population to its fort of the laws, or even of any improvement just extent. It is in vain to allege, that a more that might take place in their civil condition. simple diet, ruder habitations, or coarser ap-In Ireland, the simplicity of living alone, mainparel, would be sufficient for the purposes of tains a considerable degree of population, unlife and health, or even of physical ease and der great defects of police, industry, and compleasure. Men will not marry with this en-merce. couragement. For instance: when the common people of a country are accustomed to eat a large proportion of animal food, to drink wine, spirits, or beer, to wear shoes and stockings, to dwell in stone houses, they will not marry to live in clay cottages, upon roots and milk, with no other clothing than skins, or what is necessary to defend the trunk of the body from the effects of cold; although these last may be all that the sustentation of life and health requires, or that even contribute much to animal comfort and enjoyment.

Under this head, and from a view of these considerations, may be understood the true evil and proper danger of luxury.

LUXURY, as it supplies employment and promotes industry, assists population. But, then there is another consequence attending it, which counteracts and often overbalances these advantages. When, by introducing more superfluities into general reception, luxury has rendered the usual accommodations of life more expensive, artificial, and elaborate, the diffi. culty of maintaining a family conformably

with the established mode of living, becomes | est proportion to that of the raw material. greater, and what each man has to spare from Thus, luxury in dress or furniture, is univerhis personal consumption proportionably less: sally preferable to luxury in eating, because the effect of which is, that marriages grow less | the articles which constitute the one, are more frequent, agreeably to the maxim above laid the production of human art and industry, down, and which must be remembered as the than those which supply the other. foundation of all our reasoning upon the subject, that men will not marry to sink their the degree of luxury, which is to be dreaded 2dly, That it is the diffusion, rather than place or condition in society, or to forego those as a national evil. The mischief of luxury indulgences which their own habits, or what consists, as we have seen, in the obstruction they observe amongst their equals, have ren- which it forms to marriage. dered necessary to their satisfaction. principle is applicable to every article of diet ranks in any country compose; for which reaThis a small part of the people that the higher Now it is only and dress, to houses, furniture, attendance; son, the facility or the difficulty of supporting and this effect will be felt in every class of the expense of their station, and the consethe community. For instance: the custom quent increase or diminution of marriages of wearing broad-cloth and fine linen, re- among them, will influence the state of popu pays the shepherd and flax-grower, feeds the lation but little. So long as the prevalency of manufacturer, enriches the merchant, gives luxury is confined to a few of elevated rank, not only support but existence to multitudes much of the benefit is felt, and little of the inof families: hitherto, therefore, the effects are conveniency. But when the imitation of the beneficial; and were these the only effects, same manner descends, as it always will do, such elegancies, or, if you please to call them into the mass of the people; when it advances so, such luxuries, could not be too universal. the requisites of living, beyond what it adds But here follows the mischief: when once to men's abilities to purchase them; then it is fashion hath annexed the use of these articles that luxury checks the formation of families, of dress to any certain class, the middling in a degree that ought to alarm the public ranks, for example, of the community, each fears. individual of that rank finds them to be ne-! cessaries of life; that is, finds himself obliged population is that of a laborious, frugal people, 3dly, That the condition most favourable to to comply with the example of his equals, and ministering to the demands of an opulent, to maintain that appearance which the custom luxurious nation; because this situation, whilst of society requires. This obligation creates it leaves them every advantage of luxury, exsuch a demand upon his income, and adds so empts them from the evils which naturally acmuch to the cost and burden of a family, as to company its admission into any country. put it out of his power to marry, with the prospect of continuing his habits, or of main- consider "the quantity of provision suited to II. Next to the mode of living, we are to taining his place and situation in the world." that mode, which is either raised in the counWe see, in this description, the cause which" induces men to waste their lives in a barren der in which we assigned the causes of poputry, or imported into it :" for this is the orcelibacy; and this cause, which impairs the lation, and undertook to treat of them. Now, very source of population, is justly placed to the account of luxury.

if we measure the quantity of provision by the It appears, then, that luxury, considered health and vigour, this quantity, the extent number of human bodies it will support in due with a view to population, acts by two op- and quality of the soil from which it is raised posite effects; and it seems probable that there being given, will depend greatly upon the kind. exists a point in the scale, to which luxury For instance: a piece of ground capable of may ascend, or to which the wants of man- supplying animal food sufficient for the subkind may be multiplied with advantage to the sistence of ten persons, would sustain, at least, community, and beyond which the prejudicial the double of that number with grain, roots, consequences begin to preponderate. The de- and milk. The first resource of savage life is termination of this point, though it assume in the flesh of wild animals; hence the numthe form of an arithmetical problem, depends bers amongst savage nations, compared with upon circumstances too numerous, intricate, the tract of country which they occupy, are and undefined, to admit of a precise solution. universally small; because this species of proHowever, from what has been observed con- vision is, of all others, supplied in the slendercerning the tendency of luxury to diminish est proportion. The next step was the invenmarriages, in which tendency the evil of it re- tion of pasturage, or the rearing of flocks and sides, the following general conclusions may herds of tame animals: this alteration added be established :to the stock of provision much. But the last

1st, That, of different kinds of luxury, those and principal improvement was to follow; are the most innocent which afford employ- namely, tillage, or the artificial production of ment to the greatest number of artists and corn, osculent plants, and roots. manufacturers; or those, in other words, in very, whilst it changed the quality of human This discowhich the price of the work bears the great-tood, augmented the quantity in a vast pro