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In 1853 Dr. Rae was employed to complete the examination of the coast of America. He went up Chesterfield Inlet and River Quoich, wintering at Repulse Bay. He succeeded in connecting the discoveries of Simpson with those of James Ross, and established the fact that King William Land was an island. He also brought home tidings and relics of Franklin's expedition, gathered from the Eskimo. In the spring of 1854 Mecham made a most remarkable journey, in the hope of obtaining news of Captain Collinson; he was absent 70 days, out of which he was travelling 614 days; the distance travelled was 1,336 miles, and is without parallel in Arctic records.

Charles Hall, of Cincinnati, became an Arctic explorer through his deep interest in the search for Franklin. He made his first journey 1860-62, and discovered the interesting remains of a stone house built by Frobisher, on the Countess of Warwick Island, nearly 200 years before. On his second expedition, 1864-69, he reached the line of retreat of the Franklin survivors at Todds Island, on the south coast of King William Island. He heard from the Eskimo the story of the wreck of one of the ships, and was told that seven bodies had been buried at Todds Island. He brought home some bones, which are believed to be those of Lieutenant Le Vescomte of the Erebus.

The Norwegian fishermen are responsible, to a great extent, for recent exploration of the Spitzbergen seas. In 1863 Captain Carlsen circumnavigated the Spitzbergen group for the first time in a brig called Jan Mayen. In 1864 Nordenskiöld and Duner made observations at 80 different places on the Spitzbergen shores. In 1868 the Sofia, an iron steamer, attained a latitude of 81° 42′ N. on the meridian of 18° E. The expedition, consisting of the steamer Polhem and the brig Gladen, commanded by Professor Nordenskiöld and Lieutenant Palander, spent the winter of 1868 at Mussel Bay, on the northern shore of Spitzbergen, and in the following spring made an important sledge journey of 60 days' duration over North East Land. In 1868 an expedition, financed by Dr. Petermann of Gotha, and commanded by Captain Koldewey, sailed from Bergen to Hinlopen Strait in Spitzbergen. In 1869 another expedition, in command of Captain Koldewey, consisting of the Germania, a steamer of 140 tons, and the brig Hansa, sailed from Bremen for the east coast of Greenland. The Germania wintered at Pendulum Island in 74° 30′ N., and in March of the following year set out, under Koldewey, and reached a distance of 100 miles from the ship to the northward. A Cape, named after Prince Bismarck, marked the northern limit of their discoveries. Lieutenant Payer, who had been with Captain Koldewey, resolved to continue the work of Polar discovery. He and a naval officer named Weyprecht chartered a Norwegian schooner, called the Isbjörn, and examined the edge of the ice between Spitzber

gen and Nova Zembla. In 1872 an Austro-Hungarian expedition was organised. The steamer Tegethoff was fitted out, with Weyprecht in command, and Payer to conduct the sledge parties. The vessel sailed on July 14, 1872, but was closely beset near Cape Nassau, at the northern end of Nova Zembla, in August. In October, 1873, the island named Count Wilczek was discovered in 79° 54′ N., and the second winter was passed here.

In March, 1874, Payer started on a 30 days' sledge journey, and discovered the country named Franz-Josef Land. The expedition was compelled to abandon the ship and attempt to retreat in boats. They were eventually picked up by a Russian schooner, and arrived at Vardö on September 3, 1874. This expedition was one of the most important connected with north polar exploration during the last century.

In 1875 an English expedition, with Captain Nares as leader, in two powerful steamers, the Alert and Discovery, started for Smith's Sound. Captain Markham, Lieutenant Aldrich and Captain Fieldham, R.A., were also in the Alert. The Discovery was commanded by Captain Stevenson, with Lieutenant Beaumont as his first lieutenant. The expedition left Portsmouth on May 29, 1875, and entered Smith's Sound towards the end of July. The Discovery established her winter quarters at Lady Franklin Bay 81° 44′ N., the Alert pressed onwards and reached the edge of the Palæocrystic Sea, and passed the winter off the open coast facing the great Polar pack in 82° 27′ N. Captain Markham, with Lieutenant Parr, advanced over the Polar pack at the high latitude of 83° 20′ 26′′ N, Lieutenant Aldrich explored the coast line to the westward, facing the frozen Polar Ocean for a distance of 220 miles. The Alert reached the highest northern latitude ever attained by any ship up to that date, and wintered further north than any ship had wintered before. The expedition returned to England in October, 1876. In 1875 Sir Allen Young, in his steam yacht the Pandora, attempted to force his way down Peel Sound to the magnetic pole. He entered Peel Sound on August 29, and proceeded further than any vessel had gone since it was passed by Franklin's two ships in 1846. He reached latitude 72° 14' N., and sighted Cape Bird at the northern side of the western entrance to Bellot Strait.

In 1875 Professor Nordenskiöld turned his attention to the possibility of navigating the seas along the northern coast of Siberia, and in June of that year sailed from Tromsö in the Proven. He reached the Yeniesi by way of the Kara Sea, and discovered an excellent harbour on the eastern side of its mouth, which he named Port Dickson, after Mr. Oscar Dickson, who had largely contributed to the expedition. Nordenskiöld, being convinced that the achievement of the north-east passage was feasible, the King of Sweden, Mr, Oscar Dickson and M,

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On

Sibiriakoff supplied the funds for a second expedition, and the steamer Vega was purchased. August 10 they left Port Dickson, and on the 19th reached the most northern part of Siberia, Cape Severo or Tchelyuskin in 77° 41′ N. Towards the end of September the Vega was frozen in off the shore of a low plain in 67° 7′ N. and 173° 20′ W. After being imprisoned in ice for two hundred and ninety-four days, on July 18, 1879, the Vega proceeded on her voyage, and passed Behring Strait two days later. Thus, after a lapse of three hundred and twenty-six years, the north-east passage had been accomplished without the loss of a single life and without damage to the vessel.

In 1879 Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain A. H. Markham, R.N. (q.v.), undertook a Polar cruise in the Norwegian schooner Isbjörn. They sailed along the west coast of Nova Zembla, passing through the Matotchkim Shar to the east coast, and examined the ice in the direction of Franz-Josef Land as far as 78° 24' N.

In the same year an expedition was undertaken in the United States, with the object of obtaining further information of the sad history of the retreat of the officers and men of Sir John Franklin's expedition. The expedition consisted of Lieutenant Schwatka of the United States Army, and three others. The first winter was spent near the entrance of Chesterfield Inlet, and in April they set out, assisted by Eskimo and dogs, for the estuary of the Great Fish River. They crossed over to Cape Herschel on King William Island, in June, and examined the western shores of the island as far as Cape Felix, the northern extremity, with very little success. Some graves were found, as well as a medal belonging to Lieutenant Irvine of H.M.S. Terror, and some bones believed to be his were brought home, and eventually sent to England and interred at Edinburgh.

In 1879 Mr. Gordon Bennett purchased from Sir Allen Young the Pandora, which he rechristened the Jeannette, and dispatched an expedition of discovery by way of Behring Strait. The Jeannette, under Lieutenant De Long, United States Navy, sailed from San Francisco, July 8, 1879, and on September 3 was seen steaming towards Wrangell Land. In 1881, as nothing had been heard of this vessel, two steamers were sent up the Behring Strait in search. One of these, the Rodgers, under Lieutenant Berry, explored Wrangell Land 70° 57′ N., which he found to be an island about 70 miles long by 28 miles wide, but returned without any news of the Jeannette. Eventually, melancholy tidings arrived from Siberia. After having been beset in heavy ice pack for twenty-two months, the Jeannette was crushed and sunk in 77° 15′ N. lat. and 155° E. long. The officers and men succeeded in reaching an island, which they named Bennett Land, in July, and in the following September reached one of the New Siberia Islands, and from there set out for the mouth of the Lena. Mr. Melville, the engineer, and his boat's crew, reached Irkutsk, and immediately set out in search

of De Long and his party. Eventually De Long's body and two of his crew were discovered on March 23, 1883, they having perished from exhaustion and want of food.

In 1880 Mr. Leigh Smith made three voyages to Spitzbergen in the screw steamer Eira. He sailed along the land to the westward and discovered 110 miles of new coast line, and returned to England. In the following year he once more made for Franz-Josef Land, and reached a point further west than had been possible on his previous voyage. He had, however, gone a little too far on this occasion, and in August the ship was caught in the ice, was nipped, and sank. He and his crew passed the winter of 1881-82 in a hut, and on June 21, 1882, started in the hope of reaching some vessels on the Nova Zembla coast. On August 2 they were sighted by the Willem Barents, and subsequently taken on board the Hope, a whaler which had come out to their rescue, under the command of Sir Allen Young.

It was at the suggestion of Lieutenant Weyprecht, from a paper read by him before a large meeting of German naturalists, that the importance of establishing a number of stations within or near the Arctic circle was brought about. The various nations of Europe were represented at an international Polar Conference at Hamburg in 1879, and another at St. Petersburg in 1882, and it was finally decided that each nation should establish one or more stations. The stations established were at the following localities round the Arctic circle:

Norwegians." Bosekop," Alten Fjord, Norway.
Swedes." Ice Fjord," Spitzbergen.

Dutch." Dickson Harbour," mouth of Yeniesi,
Siberia.

Russians." Sagastyr Island," mouth of Lena,

Siberia. Möller Bay," Nova Zembla. Americans.- "Point Barrow," North America. "Lady Franklin Bay," 81° 44′ N.

English." Great Slave Lake," Dominion of Canada.

Germans.- -“Cumberland Bay," west side of Davis Strait.

Danes." Godthaab," Greenland.

Austrians." Jan Mayen," North Atlantic, 71° N.

In 1881 Lieutenant Greely's party, consisting of two lieutenants, twenty sergeants and privates of the United States Army, and Dr. Pavy, an enthusiastic explorer, installed themselves at Lady Franklin's Bay for the winter. In the following year many important journeys were made; Lieutenant Lockwood journeyed along the north coast of Greenland, and reached a small island in 83° 24′ N., and 40° 46′ W.; Dr. Pavy made two trips into the interior of Grinnell land, the coast on the western side was reached, and a large lake was discovered near Discovery Harbour. The fate of this expedition was like so many others. As no relief ship had arrived by the summer of 1883, Lieutenant Greely started from Lady Franklin's Bay with his men for Smith Sound,

ARCTIC

where he expected to pass a ship. They were overcome by cold, and compelled to encamp at Cape Sabine on the western shores of Smith Sound. Here many of them died of actual starvation, and when the relieving steamers Thetis and Bear did arrive at Cape Sabine, Lieutenant Greely and six of his companions were found just alive.

The next important Arctic work was the crossing of the great glacier forming the interior of Greenland, by Nansen and Peary. Dr. Nansen, with six companions, succeeded in landing on the East Coast of Greenland in August, 1888, and reached a height of 7,000 feet on the glacier in 64° 50′ N., and on September 26 arrived at the inner end of the Ameralikfjord in 64° 12′ N., having traversed 260 miles of glacier.

In April, 1892, Peary accompanied by Eiviod Astrup, started from Whale Sound, on the West Coast of Greenland in 77° N., and taking a north-easterly course sighted land in 82° 12' N.

In the year 1893 Dr. Nansen in the Fram started on his famous expedition to cross the Polar Ocean, by trusting to the drift from east to west. His ship was forced into the ice to the north-west of New Siberia Island, and for three winters the drift was continued, the vessel eventually coming out of the pack to the north of Spitzbergen. The principal discoveries on this memorable voyage was that there is a very deep ocean to the north of the Franz-Josef group, continuous with that to the north of Spitzbergen. The result of this expedition materially extended our knowledge of the polar regions.

In 1894 Mr. Jackson commanded an expedition in the Windward, fitted out at the expense of Mr. A. C. Harmsworth. In the spring of 1895 he made a journey northwards as far as 81° 19′ 30′′ N., and discovered a channel leading between groups of islands to the west of the Austria Sound of Payer. In 1896, during his second winter, Mr. Jackson's party met Dr. Nansen and his companions, and in the following year, accompanied by Mr. Armitage, made a remarkable journey, during which he discovered the western portion of Franz-Josef Land. The Jackson-Harmsworth expedition returned to England in the autumn of 1897.

In 1899 Captain Sverdrup in the Fram led an expedition up Smith's Sound, with the object of discovering the northern coast of Greenland. In the summer of 1889 H.R.H. the Duke of Abruzzi, on board the Norwegian whaler Jason, which was renamed the Stella Polare, proceeded to Franz-Josef Land, and wintered at Teplitz Bay in Rudolph Land. Three sledge expeditions were sent north in the spring of 1900, and one under Captain Cagni, reached 84° 33' N., at about 56° E., which is 20 miles farther north than Nansen's farthest. The sides of the Stella Polare were crushed by ice pressure, but she was patched up, and in her the expedition reached Norway in September, 1900.

Robert Edwin Peary, the American Arctic ex

་་

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plorer, during his third Arctic expedition for the discovery of the North Pole (1898-1902) rounded the north end of Greenland, the most northernly known land in the world, and succeeded in reaching 84° 13′ N. lat., the highest latitude then attained. In the summer of 1905 he started by way of Greenland for the North Pole in the steamer Roosevelt, especially constructed for the undertaking, provided with the necessary means of forcing its way through the ice, and furnished with an installation of wireless telegraphy. On November 4, 1906, news was received in New York that Peary had gained for the United States the " Farthest North "record. The Roosevelt spent the winter of 1905 on the north coast of Grant Land, somewhere north of the Alert's winter quarters. In February, 1905, Peary, with his party, went north with sledges, via Hecla and Columbia. They were delayed by open water between 84° and 85°. and beyond 85° a six days' gale disrupted the ice, destroyed the caches, cut off communication with the supporting bodies and drifted them due east. They reached 87° 6' N. lat., over ice drifting steadily eastwards. On the return journey great hardships were endured, and the ship was eventually reached by way of the Greenland coast.

See Scoresby's "Account of Arctic Regions and of the Whale Fishery" (1820), Osborne's Narrative of an Attempt to Reach the North Pole" (1827), M'Clintock's Discovery of the North-West Passage by M'Clure" (1857), Nare's "Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Franklin" (1859), Markham's "Narrative of a Voyage to the Polar Seas" (1875-76), Middendorf's "Polar Regions" (1861), Manual of the "Natural History, Geology and Physics of Greenland and the Neighbouring Regions," British Admiralty (1875), "Arctic Geography and Ethnology," Royal Geographical Society (1875), Bessel's "New Lands within the Arctic Circle" (1876), Mohn's "The North Ocean, its Depths, Temperature and Circulation" (1877), Petterson's "Voyage of the Jeannette"; "The Ship and Ice Journals of George W. De Long" (1883), Nansen's "Farthest North" (1897), "The Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893-96."

Arctic Ocean. One of the great water divisions of the Globe, the Arctic circle (60° 30′) being taken as a boundary, the whole of the ocean lying to the north is given this name. It is for the most part enclosed between the North Coast of Europe, Asia and North America, It communicates with the Atlantic by a broad opening on the east of Greenland, and a narrow, but important channel on the west, which has been traced as far north as 87° 6' N. The immediate area round the North Pole is as yet unexplored; the nearest approaches which have been made have been those of Dr. Nansen and Johansen 86° 14', in 1895; Captain Cagni 86° 34′, 1900; Robert Edwin Peary 87° 6′ N., 1906. So far as is known the region immediately round the Pole consists of deep water covered with rough and broken ice-pack. The area of the

ARCTIC

Arctic Ocean is estimated at 5,908,000 square miles. The temperature of the surface water is generally 29°, or about freezing point of salt water, at about 110 fathoms it increases to 33°, and the highest temperature ranges between 120 and 350 fathoms, namely, 35° to 39°. The greatest known depth is about 2,650 fathoms. The most important of the numerous islands are Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, with the multitudinous adjacent islets to the north of Europe; the Likhow Islands or New Siberia, off the coast of Asia, and the vast irregular Archipelago, into which the north eastern portion of America is split. Refer to Arctic Exploration.

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43

Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August (1799-1895). German astronomer (b. Memel). From 1823-27. he was director of the Abo Observatory, and in 1837 became Professor of Astronomy at Bonn, where he published his celestial atlas "Uranometria Nova" in 1843. In continuation of Bessel's work he determined the position of some 22,000 stars.

Argentino Yacht Club, with their headquarters in Buenos Ayres, was established in 1883. Patron, His Excellency the President of the Argentine Republic; Commodore, Rear-Admiral Enrique G. Howard; Vice-Commodore, C. F. Blanco; Hon. Treasurer, F. F. Nisbet; Hon. Secretary, L. B. Entrance fee, 100 dols. Annual subscrip

Arctic Pole. The North Pole, as opposed to the Antarctic or Southern one.

Arctic Zone. The zone or belt of the earth between the North Pole and the Arctic circle.

Arcturus. A star of the first magnitude, one of the nautical stars, close to the knee of Arctophylax.

Ardea. Italian torpedo-boat. (Odero, 1906.) Length, 165 ft.; beam, 17 ft.; draught, 7 ft.; displacement, 200 tons; complement, 36; armament, 3 3-pdr., 3 tubes.; Hp., 3,000 = 25 kts. ; coal, 40 tons. Ardent. British torpedo-boat destroyer. (Chiswick, 1894.) Length, 201 ft.; beam, 19 ft.; draught, 7 ft.; displacement, 247 tons; complement, 45; armament, 1 12-pdr., 5 6-pdr.; 2 tubes; twin screw; Hp., 4,500 27 kts.; coal, 60 tons.

This ship-name is associated with Hood's occupation of Toulon, 1793; Camperdown, 1797; Copenhagen, 1801; Bombardment of Copenhagen, 1807.

Ardent. Term used when vessel gripes or goes to wind quickly.

Ardjoeno. Netherlands torpedo-boat. (Yarrow, 1886.) Length, 125 ft.; beam, 13 ft.; draught, 6 ft.; displacement, 83 tons; complement, 16; armament, 2 1-pdr., 2 tubes, Hp., 880-21 kts.; coal, 20 tons. Areometer. See Hydrometer.

Arethusa. A vessel built and engined by Messrs. Penn in 1860 with engines of large cylinder capacity to admit of great expansion with surface condensers and superheaters to the boilers. They were doubletrunk with two cylinders and worked at a pressure of 25lbs. to the square inch. This vessel was constructed with the idea of economising fuel. Aretusa. Italian torpedo gun-boat (1891). Displacement 850 tons. Complement 118. Guns. Armour. Steel." I-4.7 in. 6-6 pdr. 11⁄2 in. Deck.

3-1 pdr.

"

Torpedo Tubes.

6 Above water.

Twin screw.

Torpedo Tubes (18 in.).

2 Submerged.

Hp. 18,000 20.3 kts. Coal maximum 2,000 tons. Approximate cost £600,000.

Argonaut. The name given to cuttles belonging to the genus Argonauta. One of the heroes who accompanied Jason in the ship Argo when he sailed on his mythic voyage in quest of the Golden Fleece.

Argonaute. French torpedo-boat (1899). Displacement, 120; complement, 34; maximum draught, 9 ft.; guns 2 3-pdr.; torpedo tubes 2 15-in.; twin screw; Hp., 2,000 26 kts.; coal, 16 tons.

Argo Steamship Co., with their head offices at Bremen, have a fleet of 30 steamers engaged in general cargo carrying, and the Bremen-London and the Bremen-Hull trades. They are modern wellbuilt ships, containing excellent accommodation for the conveyance of passengers. A steamer leaves London every Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday, for Bremen, one sailing from Bremen on the same days. A steamer leaves Hull for Bremen every Monday and Friday, returning from Bremen every Wednesday and Saturday.

Argus. French shallow draught gun-boat. (Chiswick, 1900.) Displacement, 122 tons; speed, 13 kts. Argyll. British 1st class cruiser. (Greenock Foundry Co., 1904.)

Length 450 ft. Beam 68 ft. Maximum draught 25 ft.

ARIADNE

44

AR'MEN

Aries. A northern constellation, forming the first of the twelve signs of the Zodiac, into which the sun enters about March 20, With Musca, Aries contains 22 Nebulæ, 8 double, and 148 single stars, of which only 50 are visible to the naked eye. The commencement of this sign, called the first point of Aries, is the original from which the right ascension of the heavenly bodies is reckoned upon the equator, and their longitude upon the ecliptic. Owing to the effect of precession, the passage of the sun through Aries has been moved forward from April 16 to May 13.

Arkansas. U.S. monitor. (Newport News, 1900.) Length 252 ft. Beam 50 ft. Maximum draught 13 ft. Displacement 2,755 tons. Complement 130.

Guns.

2-12 in., 40 cal. 4-4 in.

Guns.

16-6 in., 40 cal.

Hp. 18,000 203 kts. Coal maximum 2,000 tons. Approximate cost £600,000.

A ship of this name was with Barrington at St. Lucia 1778; with Byron against D'Estaing, off Grenada, 1779; Hotham, off Hyères, 1795.

Ariadne. German armoured cruiser (Weser, 1900). Length 328 ft. Beam 39 ft. Maximum draught 17 ft. Displacement 2,650 tons. Complement 249.

Ariake. Japanese torpedo-boat destroyer. (Yarrow, 1905.) Displacement, 380 tons; complement, 55; maximum draught, 9 ft.; armament, 1 12-pdr., 5 6-pdr., tubes 2 18 in.; Hp., 6,000-31 kts.; coal, 95 tons.

Ariel. On March 18, 1820, this vessel was lost in the Persian Gulf, when 79 perished.

Ariel. British torpedo-boat destroyer. (Chiswick, 1897.) Length, 210 ft.; beam, 19 ft.; draught, 7 ft.; displacement, 278 tons; complement, 60; armament, 12-pdr., 5 6-pdr., 2 tubes; twin screw; Hp., 5,800 30 kts.; coal, 80 tons.

This vessel struck the head of the break-water during a night attack on Malta Harbour, April, 1907, and foundered; one life lost.

Twin screw. 400 tons.

Armour.

Krupp."

II in. Belt amidships.

11 in. Barbettes.

8 in. Conning tower.

Torpedo Tubes (18 in.).

2 Above water. Hp. 2,400:

= 12 kts. Coal maximum

Ark of Noah. A sacred and capacious vessel, built by Noah for the purpose of preserving the race of man, and of the land animals, against the flood. It took 120 years to build, measured 300 cubics in length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height; it had three storeys, and was constructed of Gopher wood, and pitched over or paved with Bitumen.

A.R.M. Distinguishing letters on sea fishing boats registered at Arnemuiden, Holland.

Armada. A Spanish term, signifying a royal fleet. It comes from the same root as Army.

Armada, The Spanish. See Spanish Armada. Armand Behic. French subsidised merchant ship (1892). Messageries Maritimes (q.v.). Dimensions, 486 x 49 x 36 ft.; gross tonnage, 6,635.; Hp., 7,500 17 kts. =

Armed Neutrality is the condition of a neutral State which is prepared to take military measures against possible attempts on the part of a belligerent (q.v.) to use neutral territory or to commit aggressions. The first armed neutrality of 1780, formed by Russia, Denmark and Sweden, proclaimed the principles that neutral vessels may freely navigate and carry goods belonging to subjects of belligerents, if not of the nature of contraband of war (q.v.), and that no blockade (q.v.) should be recognised unless effective. The second armed neutrality of 1800 made no advance, owing to the Naval supremacy of Great Britain and the death of the Emperor Paul. In 1807 Russia proclaimed armed neutrality afresh, and it was not until the Declaration of Paris (q.v.), 1865, that new rules were finally settled.

Ar'men Light, situated off Cape Finisterre, was established in 1897, and is a 3-flash light every