AQUEOUS

carrying the Ellesmere Canal across the Dee is 1,000 feet long and 126 feet high. In British India the most important is the Ganges Canal, which traverses the North Western Provinces of Bengal, and distributes over their vast area nearly the whole volume of the waters of the Ganges. The Croton aqueduct by which the City of New York is supplied with water, built in 1842, was regarded at that time as one of the most magnificent works of the kind in modern times; its length is 384 miles. The Loch Katrine Aqueduct of the Glasgow Waterworks is the modern aqueduct which has probably attracted the largest share of public attention; the length of the aqueduct is about 35 miles, of which 27 may be considered the aqueduct proper, the remaining 8 miles consists of two lines of cast-iron pipes, by which the water is conveyed from large service reservoirs at Mugdock to the City of Glasgow. An aqueduct near Edinburgh, conveying the water of the Edinburgh and Glasgow Union Canal across the valley of the Water of Leith at Slateford, is constructed entirely of cast-iron, built in with masonry. It is about 500 feet in length, and consists of eight arches, each 45 feet span, 75 feet above the level of the river. The aqueduct which carries the water to supply the Vienna Waterworks from Kaiserbrunn spring to the receiving reservoir at Rosenhugel is 56 miles long.

See Herschel's "Water Supply of Rome "; Turneaure and Russell's "Public Water Supplies" (1901). Aqueous Rocks. A name applied to all rocky masses beneath the water, whether in the form of sedimentary deposits, accumulations of shells, or of crystallized masses due to concentration by evaporation.

Aqueous Vapour. See Elastic Force of Vapour. Aquidaban. Brazilian battleship. Displacement, 5,000 tons.

Blown up by the exploding of her magazine at Jacarepagna, a small port to the south of Rio de Janeiro, January 22, 1906. The ship sank three minutes after the explosion, and 300 officers and men perished. This vessel was torpedoed by the Sampio, and sank in shallow water at Destoro, during the revolt of the Brazilian Fleet, March, 1894. She was refloated and sent to Stettin to undergo repairs.

Aquila. Italian torpedo-boat. (Elbing, 1888.) Length, 152 ft.; beam, 17 ft.; maximum draught, 8 ft. ; displacement, 130 tons; complement, 24; armament, 2 3-pdr. q.f., 1 1-pdr.; 3 tubes; Hp., 2,200 = 26 kts.; coal maximum, 40 tons.

Aquilono. Italian torpedo-boat destroyer. (Naples, 1902.) Displacement, 330 tons; maximum draught, 8 ft.; armament, 5 6-pdr., tubes, 2 18 in.; Hp., 6,000-30 kts.; coal, 80 tons.

A.R. Distinguishing letters on sea fishing boats registered at Ayr, Scotland.

Arab. British torpedo-boat destroyer. (Clydebank, 1901.) Length, 210 ft.; beam, 19 ft.; draught, 7 ft.; displacement, 278 tons; complement, 60; armament, 1 12-pdr., 5 6-pdr.; 2 tubes; twin screw; Hp., 5,800 30 kts.; coal, 80 tons.

Arabia. British subsidised merchant ship (1898). P. and O. Company (q.v.). Dimensions, 500 X 54 X 33 ft.; gross tonnage, 7,900; passenger accommodation, 524; Hp., 9,400=18 kts.

Arbelete. French torpedo-boat destroyer. (Normand, 1902.) Length, 180 ft.; beam, 21 ft.; maximum draught, 10 ft.; displacement, 300 tons; complement, 45; guns, 1 9-pdr., 6 3-pdr.; torpedo tubes, 2 15 in.; speed, 27-30 kts.

Arbitration. (1) Arbitration is an agreement between parties to refer disputes to the decision of one or more persons. The Arbitration Act, 1889, amends and consolidates the previous Acts on the subject. Where parties have submitted to determine questions in dispute by arbitration, such submission, unless a contrary intention appear, is irrevocable, except by leave of the Court. The arbitrator is a person either appointed by the Court or mutually The rules of proagreed upon between the parties. cedure and evidence are similar to those of the High

ARBUTHNOT

Court, and perjury is punishable as in other cases. The arbitrator, who may be removed and his award set aside by the Court for misconduct, must try the case impartially, and make the award in writing within three months, when it must be final and not subject to conditions.

Where there are two arbitrators whose opinions differ, an umpire is appointed by them.

The Court may refer any civil matter for inquiry or report to an official or special referee, who is deemed an officer of the Court, and must conduct the reference according to rules prescribed by the Court. His report or award, unless set aside by the Court or Judge, shall be equivalent to the verdict of a jury.

(2) International Arbitration is the settlement of disputes between independent states by one or more private individuals or a friendly power, mutually agreed upon. The principal questions referred to International Arbitration relate to boundaries on land, fisheries at sea, breaches of neutrality, and unlawful arrests and seizures of vessels.

At The Hague Peace Conference, 1899, where twenty-six states were represented, the establishment of a permanent Court of International Arbitration was agreed upon.

Arbuthnot, Charles Ramsay, Captain R.N. (b. February 5, 1850). Educated H.M.S. Britannia; a SubLieutenant of the Royal yacht; Lieutenant in Arctic yacht Pandora (Arctic medal); promoted Commander 1883; Captain 1891; commanded H.M.S. Orlando, flagship Australian Station, 1892-95. Refer to Arctic Exploration.

Arc.

French torpedo-boat destroyer. (Chalon, 1903.) Length, 183 ft.; beam, 21 ft.; draught, 10 ft.; displacement, 300 tons; complement, 62; armament, 19-pdr., 6 3-pdr.; 2 tubes; twin screw; Hp., 6,000-28 kts.; coal, 75 tons.

Arcachon, Yachting Club D'. Established 1887. President, Comte de Gaulne; Vice-Presidents, H. Exshaw and G. Picon, 250, Boulevard de la Plage, Arcachon. Annual subscription, 20 francs.

Arcadia. British subsidised merchant ship (1888). P. and O. Company (q.v.). Dimensions, 468 × 52 × 341 ft.; gross tonnage, 6,605; passenger accommodation, 321; Hp., 6,000--17 kts. Arched Squall. A squall off the West Coast of Africa, in which the clouds take the shape of an arch.

Archer. French sea-going torpedo-boat. (Normand, 1893.) Length, 138 ft.; beam, 14 ft.; draught, 7 ft.; displacement, 131 tons; complement, 26; armament, 2 3-pdr., 2 tubes; Hp., 1,250= 26 kts.; coal, 27 tons.

Archer Fish. A name given to the Toxotes Jaculator, and several East India and Polynesian fishes, from the habit they have of shooting drops of water a distance of three or four feet into the air, thus bringing down insects for their food.

It was,

Arctic Exploration. The Arctic Sea, we are told by King Alfred, was entered by a Norwegian named Other, and although the localities mentioned cannot now be identified, it is quite possible that they refer to the North Cape and the coast of Lapland. however, not until 1553, when an expedition promoted by Sebastian Cabot, and under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby and Richard Chancellor, that any advance was made in Arctic Exploration. The expedition sailed on May 20, 1553, "for the search and discovery of the northern parts of the world to open up a way and passage to our men for travel to new and unknown kingdoms." On this expedition Nova Zembla was sighted. In the spring of 1556 Steven Burrough, who was with Chancellor, sailed in a small pinnace called the Searchthrift. He went to Archangel, and discovered the Strait leading into the Kara Sea, between Nova Zembla and the Island of Waigat. In 1580 two vessels, under Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, sailed through the Strait discovered by Burrough, and thence eastward beyond the mouth of the River Obi. Pet discovered a Strait into the Kara Sea, between Waigat and the mainland, and endeavoured to push eastward, but without success returned to England in safety.

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Jackman, after wintering in a Norwegian port, sailed for England, but was never heard of again. In 1576 Frobisher, aided financially by Michael Lok, set sail with two small vessels of 20 to 25 tons, called the Gabriel and Michael. This expedition was formed with the idea of discovering a shorter route to India by the north-west. On July 20, Frohisher sighted high land, which he named Queen Elizabeth's Foreland, and the following day he entered the Strait now known as Frobisher Strait, calling the land Meta Incognita. For a long time Frobisher Strait was supposed to pass through Greenland, but it is now clear that Frobisher never saw Greenland, and that his Strait and the Meta Incognita are on the American side of Davis Strait. John Davis made three voyages in three successive years. He was the first to visit the West Coast of Greenland; discovered Gilbert Sound and the Strait which bears his name. On his second voyage he did not accomplish anything of note. In his third voyage 1587, he advanced far up Davis Strait, and reached a lofty island in 72° 41′ N., which he named Sanderson's Hope.

In 1594 some Amsterdam merchants fitted out a vessel of some 100 tons, under the command of Willem Barents. He discovered the whole western coast as far as Cape Nassau and the Orange Island at the north-western extremity. On his second voyage he made an unsuccessful attempt to enter the Kara Sea. During the third voyage, 1596, he acted as pilot to Jacob van Heemskerck, who was accompanied by Corneliszoon Rijp; they sailed northward and discovered Bear Island, and sighted the northwestern extremity of Spitzbergen, which they named Niewland. They were the first to face, and successfully pass, an Arctic winter, and in the spring of the following year made their way in boats to the Lapland coast. Barents died during the voyage, but his record takes first rank among Polar enterprises of the sixteenth century.

In 1602 Captain Waymouth, sent out by the East India Company to seek for a passage by the opening seen by Davis, returned without any success.

In 1605 Christian IV. of Denmark sent out three ships under the Englishmen Cunningham and Hall, and a Dane named Lindenov. They managed to get as far as the West Coast of Greenland, and had much intercourse with the Eskimo. In 1607 Henry Hudson, in the service of the Muscovy Company, made his first voyage, and discovered the most northerly point on the Eastern Coast of Greenland, 73° N., he examined the edge of the ice between Greenland and Spitzbergen, and reached the latitude of 80° 23′ N. On his return he discovered Hudson's Tutches, since called Jan Mayen. In his second voyage, 1608, he examined the edge of the ice between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. In his third voyage, when employed by the Dutch East India Company, he explored the coast of North America, and discovered the River, Strait and great Bay which bear his name. Sir Thomas Button in May, 1612, in command of two

ships, the Resolution and Discovery, sailed from England, entered Hudson's Bay, crossed it to its western shore, and wintered at the mouth of the Hudson river. In the following year he explored the shore of Southampton Island as far as 65° N., returning to England in 1613. In 1616 Robert Bylot, as master, and William Baffin, as pilot and navigator in the Discovery, examined the coast of Hudson's Strait, and made many valuable observations. In the following year the two sailed again in the Discovery, and discovered what has been known ever since as Baffin's Bay. Baffin named the most northern opening Smith Sound, after the promoter of the voyage Sir Thomas Smith; Wolstenholme Sound, Cape Dudley Digges, Hakluyt Island, Lancaster Sound, Jones Sound, and Cary Islands were named after others interested in the expedition. In 1631 two expeditions were dispatched, one from London and one from Bristol. In the London ship, Charles, Luke Fox explored the western side of Hudson's Bay, as far as a place called "Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome." Captain James, in the Bristol ship Maria, went north and reached "North West Fox," 66° 47′ N. He wintered off Charlton Island, and returned in 1632.

After the acquisition of Siberia by the Russians, the whole of the northern shores of that vast region was gradually explored. In 1648 Simon Desnneff, a Cossack, in a boat expedition on the River Kolyma, passed through the Strait, afterwards named Bering, and reached the Gulf of Anadyr. Captain Vlamingh, in 1664, advanced as far round the northern end of Nova Zembla as the winter quarters of Barents. In 1671 Frederick Martens visited the Spitzbergen group. In 1707 Captain Gilies and Outsger Rep went to the eastward as far as the northern shores of Greenland, and saw high land in 80°, which has since been known as Gilies Land.

In 1722 John Scroggs, in the employment of the Hudson's Bay Company, was sent from Churchill River in search of two ships commanded by Mr. Knight. He went as far as Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome, and then returned, and it was subsequently found that the two ships were lost and the crews had perished.

Peter the Great in 1725 appointed Captain Vitus Bering, a Dane, to command an expedition. Two vessels set sail in 1728, Bering ascertaining the existence of a Strait between Asia and America. In 1740 he again set sail in the St. Paul, with the object of discovering the American side of the Strait. He sighted that magnificent peak, named by him Mt. St. Elias; explored the Alutian Islands, but the ship was wrecked on an island, and Bering himself died on December 8, 1741.

In 1735 Lieut. T. Tchelyuskin got as far as 77° 25' N., near the Cape which bears his name, and eight years later reached, with a sledge party, the most northerly point of Siberia 77° 41′ N.

Capt. Christopher Middleton in 1742 discovered Wager River and Repulse Bay. In 1746 Captain W. Moor made a voyage in the same direction, and explored the

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nected that position with Point Barrow, which had been discovered by the Blossom in 1826. During this voyage the explorers landed at Montreal Island, at the mouth of the Great Fish River, and advanced as far as Castor and Pollux River, and returned along the north side of the channel, which is the south shore of King William Island, discovered by James Ross. In order to complete the delineation of the northern shores of the American Continent Dr. John Rae was entrusted by the Hudson's Bay Company with an expedition. He went to Repulse Bay, where he wintered, and in the spring of the following year explored on foot the shores of a great gulf having 7,000 miles of coast line. He was the means of connecting the work of Parry, at the mouth of the Fury and Hecla Strait, to that of Ross on the coast of Boothia, and proved that Boothia was part of the American Continent. In 1843 Middendorf was sent to explore the region which terminates in Cape Techelyuskin, previously surveyed by Baron Wrangell. He reached the Cape in the height of the short summer, whence he saw open water, and thus completed the exploration of the Arctic shores of Siberia.

He

In 1845 Sir John Franklin, in the Erebus and Terror, made a fresh attempt to make the passage from Lancaster Sound to Behring Strait. He wintered at Beechy Island, and in the following spring found a channel leading south along the western shore of the land of North Somerset, discovered by Parry in 1819. knew that if he could reach the channel on the American coast he would be able to make his way along it to the Behring Strait. He sailed down Peel Sound towards King William Island, with land on both sides, but immediately after passing the southern point of the western land, he was driven by the great Palæocrystic Sea (the name given by Sir George Nares to the accumulation of ice of enormous thickness, which arises from the absence of direct communication between this portion of the north polar region and the warm waters of the Atlantic and Pacific) towards King William Island. In the spring of 1848 Sir James Ross was sent with two ships, the Enterprise and the Investigator, to search for Franklin. He wintered in Leopold Harbour, and in the spring of 1849 made a long sledge journey with Lieutenant M'Clintock along the northern and western coasts of North Somerset, without finding any traces of the Franklin expedition. In 1848 Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae, at the instigation of the Hudson's Bay Company, continued the search, and examined the American coast from the mouth of the Mackenzie to that of the Coppermine; and in 1851, after a long sledge journey and a boat voyage, to the shores of Wollaston and Victoria Land. Anxiety about the fate of the Franklin expedition was now being keenly felt, and an extensive plan of search was organised; one expedition, under Collinson and M'Clure in the Enterprise and Investigator; one under Captain Austin, comprising the Assistance and Resolute, with two steam tenders, the Pioneer and

Intrepid, and two brigs the Lady Franklin and Sofia, under Captain Penny. Austin and Penny entered Barrow Strait, and discovered Franklin's winter quarters on Beechy Island. Stopped by ice, the expedition wintered off Griffith Island, and in the following spring they planned a thorough and extensive system of search by means of sledge travelling. Penny undertook the search by Wellington Channel, M'Clintock advanced to Melville Island, marching over 770 miles in 81 days; Captain Ommaney and Sherard Osborn went south, and discovered Prince of Wales Island; Lieutenant Brown examined the western shores of Peel Sound; but with the exception of the winter quarters at Beechy Island, no record, no sign of Franklin was discovered. Collinson, in the Enterprise, was within a few miles of Point Victory, on the shores of Victoria Land, where the fate of Franklin would have been ascertained had he pushed a little further. He passed his first winter in a Sound in Prince Albert Island, 71° 35' N. and 117° 35′ W.; his second in Cambridge Bay, and his third in Camden Bay, 70° 8' N., 140° 29′ W., returning to England in 1854. M'Clure in the Investigator, passed the first winter, 1850-51, at the Princess Royal Islands, and came across the same palæocrystic ice which stopped Franklin off King William Land. turned south, and after many hair-breadth escapes, took refuge in a bay on the north shore of Banksland, which he named the Bay of God's Mercy, and here the Investigator remained, never to move again. Two winters were spent here, and M'Clure and his crew were preparing to abandon the ship and reach the American coast as Franklin had attempted, and possibly the fate of this expedition would have been that which overtook Sir John Franklin and his party, had not succour providentially arrived in time.

He

It was during the autumn of 1853 that Captain Kellett, in command of the Resolute, with M'Clintock in the steam tender Intrepid, discovered M'Clure's record, and thus ascertained the position of the Investigator. In the following spring Lieutenant Pim was entrusted with the task of taking a message across the Strait, which he successfully accomplished. The officers and crew of the Investigator, led by M'Clure, arrived safely on board the Resolute, June 17, 1853, and reached England in the following year. They not only discovered, but traversed the north-west passage, though not in the same ship, and partly by travelling over the ice. M'Clure received the honour of Knighthood, and a reward of £10,000, voted by the House of Commons, was granted to himself, the officers and crew. The sledge party of Kellett's expedition, led by M'Clintock, Mecham and Vasey Hamilton, completed the discovery of the northern and western sides of Melville Island. M'Clintock's sledge party was away from the ship for 105 days, and during that time travelled 1,328 miles; Mecham's party was away 94 days, and travelled 1,163 miles.