Twin screw. Hp. 11,500 = 16'25 kts. Coal maximum 1,200 tons. Approximate cost £800,000.

This ship-name is associated with Rodney's victory, 1782; destruction of the Calliope, 1797; capture of the Daphne, 1797; Warren's action, 1798; capture of the Bomona, 1806; and the Curacao, 1807.

Arson, Captain Charles Eustace, R.N., M.V.O. 1901 (b. 1859). Entered Navy 1872; promoted Lieutenant 1882, and served in Egypt (medal and clasp; bronze star); Commander 1894; Captain 1901, and appointed to command H.M. yacht Osborne.

Anson, George Lord, British Admiral (b. Shuckborough Manor, Staffordshire, April 22, 1697). Entered Navy at the age of 15, and at the early age of 21 was promoted to command of the Weasel sloop, and by 1724 to the command of the man-ofwar Scarborough. From 1724 to 1735 he made three expeditions to South Carolina against the Spaniards. In 1739, on the outbreak of the Spanish war, he was given command of a squadron of eight vessels, equipped to annoy the Spaniards in the South Seas. He sailed in September 1740, and, although losing most of his men, with only one remaining ship, the

ANTARCTIC

Centurion, he captured a rich galleon on her passage to Manila, and returned to England 1743 laden with booty, and was appointed Rear-Admiral of the Blue. In 1745 he was made Rear-Admiral of the White, In 1747 as Vice-Admiral, he intercepted off Cape Finisterre, a powerful French fleet, which he utterly defeated, taking six men-of-war and four East Indiamen. In recognition of his signal services he was raised to the peerage. In 1757 he became first Lord of the Admiralty, and four years later Admiral of the Fleet, which rank he held until his death, June 6, 1762.

Ant. British 3rd class gun-boat (254 tons). Launched 1873.

Antarctic. Ship. See Antarctic Exploration.

Antarctic. Opposed to Arctic; the Antarctic Circle or Zone which it encloses.

Antarctic Circle. A small circle of the earth described around the Southern Pole, at a distance from it of 23° 28'. Sometimes, however, the term is more loosely applied to the South Polar regions in general.

Antarctic Exploration. The first ship to approach the Antarctic circle was one of a fleet under Jacob Mahu, which sailed from Rotterdam, June 1598. The vessel, a yacht of 150 tons, named the Good News, was commanded by Dirk Gerritz, and he is credited with having discovered the South Shetlands. In 1772 a Frenchman named Yves J. Kerguelen, discovered the island which bears his name, in 48° 41′ S.; this island is now usually used as a base for Antarctic exploration. The first voyage of importance to the southern seas was that of Captain Cook, who in January 1773, sailed southwards from the Cape of Good Hope in the Resolution. On January 17 the Antarctic circle was crossed for the first time in long. 39° 35' E. In December of that year he made another attempt to discover the supposed southern Continent, and again crossed the Antarctic circle in 147° 46′ W., and on January 29, 1774, reached 70° 23′ S. Captain Bristow, in 1806, discovered Auckland Island and Hazleburgh, and four years later Campbell Island. In 1818 Mr. William Smith came across the land known as South Shetland, which was subsequently confirmed by Mr. Bransfield, the Captain of H.M.S. Andromache, who discovered another portion, which was named Bransfield's Land. The South Orkneys were discovered by Captain George Powell in the sloop Dove 1821, and in the following year James Weddell, R.N., of the sailing vessel Jane, attained the lat. of 74° 15′ S. In 1830 an expedition under the command of Mr. John Biscoe, R.N., sighted land in long. 47° 20′ E., and lat. 65° 57′ S., which he named Enderby Land, subsequently discovering Biscoe Island, the land now known as Graham Land. In 1839 the French expedition, under Dumont d'Urville, discovered Joinville Land and Louis Phillippe Land, and two

ANTARCTIC

small islands on the Antarctic circle named Terre Adélie and Cote Clarie. The finest expedition that has ever explored the south polar seas, was the English Antarctic Expedition which left England in 1839, and Hobart, December 1840. This expedition was under the command of Captain (afterwards Sir) James Clarke Ross, who was accompanied by Dr. (afterwards Sir) Joseph Hooker. Two old bomb vessels were fitted out, the Erebus and Terror, and sailed from Chatham in September 1839, proceeding to the Cape, and thence southward to Kerguelen Island. Possession islands were discovered, and a landing affected on one of the largest, and the coast line of Victoria Land was traced from Cape North to Cape Crozier, a distance of about 570 miles. Several summits and mountain ranges were named, including a volcano, Erebus, 12,400 ft. The south magnetic pole was calculated to be in 76° S. and 145° 20' E., about 500 miles south-west of the ship's position. The whole of the great southern land discovered on this voyage was named Victoria Land. In November 1841 a second voyage was undertaken, and the Arctic circle was crossed on New Year's Day 1842. After navigating through a belt of ice 800 miles broad, a clear sea was sighted February 1, 1842, and the voyage continued to the southward in 174° 31′ W. On February 23 the expedition attained a lat. of 78° 11′ S., the highest ever reached at that time. In December of the following year the expedition sailed on the third visit, and the land named after Prince d'Joinville by Dumont d'Urville, and the southern side of the South Shetlands was discovered and surveyed. In 1845 Lieutenant Moore, in command of a merchant barque, the Pagoda, continued the work which Ross had so ably started, and completed the magnetic observations south of the 60th parallel, between the meridians of the Cape and Australia. In 1873 the Challenger expedition (q.v.), under the command of Captain Nares, sailed from England, arriving at Kerguelen Island on January 6, 1874, where surveys were made, and the islands including those named Heard and Macdonald, which had been discovered in November 1853, by Captain Heard, of the American ship Oriental, thoroughly examined by the naturalists of the expedition. Several deep sea soundings were taken, the greatest depth being 1,975 fathoms. The first winter passed by man

within the Antarctic circle was that of 1898, when the Belgica, under Captain de Gerlache, was beset by ice in lat. 71° 31' S., and long. 85° 16′ W.

The German Antarctic Expedition in the Gauss (1901-03), discovered new land south of 61° 58′ S.S. and 95° 8' E., which was named Kaiser Wilhelm II. land, and also discovered an inactive volcano, which was named Gaussberg.

A Swedish Expedition in the Antarctic left Europe in 1901, the vessel was lost two years later, but the party were rescued. The Scottish National Antarctic Expedition in the Scotia (1902-04), confined its work to the Weddell Sea. Four thousand miles of ocean, from 17° 45′ W. long. to 70° 25′ S. lat. was

explored, and after wintering in the South Orkneys, they reached, in their second season, the southeastern extremity of Weddell Sea, discovering a great barrier of inland ice, which is believed to be part of the Antarctic Continent, and which was found to be 600 miles north of its supposed position.

Among the most important expeditions recently at work in the Antarctic regions, must be mentioned the British National Antarctic Expedition, in the Discovery (1902-04). The Ross barrier was followed for a considerable distance to the east, and the coast discovered named Edward VII. land. Subsequently it was discovered that Mount Erebus and Terror are on an island, and that Murdo Bay is really a Strait. Connected with this expedition were Captain R. F. Scott and Lieutenant Shackleton, who on January 1, 1903, sledged southward along the coast of Victoria Land, and carried the British flag to 82° 17′ S., the highest southern lat. ever attained.

"

See Antarctic Manual," Murray, 1901; Murdoch's "From Edinburgh to the Antarctic," 1894; Bull's "Cruise of the Antarctic," 1896; Borchgrevink's "First on the Antarctic Continent," 1901; Bernacchi's "To the South Polar Regions," 1901; Southern Cross Collections (Nat. Hist.), 1903; Nordenskojld's "Antarctica," 1905.

"

Antarctic Ocean. A name that should, strictly speaking, be applied only to the ice-bound sea to the south of the Antarctic circle; but generally applied to the great water division of the globe round the South Pole. As compared with the Arctic Ocean, little is known about this portion of the earth's surface. There is good reason to believe, however, that the Antarctic consists of a central mass of land covered with a thick and presumably unbroken ice cap. The depth varies considerably, and perceptibly decreases as the edge of the ice-barrier is approached. East of Victoria Land the depth varies from 100 to 800 fathoms; east of South Shetland Isles 100 to 500 fathoms; west of Graham's Land 200 to 300 fathoms; between Patagonia and Kerguelen Isle from 2,000 to 3,000 fathoms. Records of the Challenger expedition proved that deep-sea soundings were taken at a depth of 1,975 fathoms. To the S.W. of South Georgia, Sir James Clark Ross records having sounded a depth of 4,000 fathoms, without finding bottom. The temperature of the Antarctic is slightly colder than that of the Arctic, and varies considerably. Observations made by the German Deep-Sea Expedition in the Valdivia in 1898-99, give a surface temperature down to 50 fathoms of 29° to 30° F.; at 165 fathoms 35° F.; below 800 fathoms it sinks to 31°. According to the observations of the Challenger expedition the temperature of the surface water was between 29° and 38°, according to the latitude, with the bottom temperature from 32° to 35°.

Antarctic Pole. The Southern Pole, whether of the earth or of the heavens.

Anthracite (or Stone Coal) is a variety of coal, differing from the common bituminous kind by its great hardness, the large proportion of carbon in its composition, and the great heat given out in burning. While ordinary coal has a dull lustre, anthracite is brilliant, and is frequently iridescent on the natural surface. It does not soil the fingers when handled like ordinary coal; ignites with difficulty; burns with a feeble smokeless flame, giving out an intense heat, and is the best steam coal known. Anthracite has been defined as the ultimate product, of the conversion of vegetable matter into coal. The chief deposits in Great Britain exist in the great coal-fields of South Wales, while the greatest fields at present worked are those of Pennsylvania. It is also found in Selesia, Westphalia, France, Russia, West Canada, and the Rocky Mountains. It has been estimated by Richthofen that the anthracite deposits in the Chinese province of Shansi, amount to 630,000,000,000 tons. See Robert's Anthracite Coal Industry (1902).

Anthropophagi. See Cannibalism.

Anticyclone. An area of relatively high barometric pressure increasing towards the centre, in which the wind blows spirally outwards, and in the northern hemisphere, in the direction of the movement of the hands of a watch.

Anti-Incrustatours. See Boiler Composition. Antipatharia (or Black Corals). A group of Actinozoa (q.v.) with horny skeleton.

Antipodes. The name given to those inhabitants of the earth's surface who are diametrically opposite to each other, i.e., feet to feet. From the people the term has passed to the places themselves, which are situated at the two extremities of any diameter of the earth.

Anti-Trades. Winds in the upper air blowing in a contrary direction to that of the trade wind (q.v.) of the lower level. The direction of the anti-trade winds is usually from the S.W., but in the southern hemisphere, they blow from the N.W

APPARENTLY

the middle of the eighteenth century that any serious investigation on this subject took place. At this time the eminent Dr. J. Fothergill, in a paper to the Royal Society, propounded the most important theory of the "possibility of saving many lives without risking anything," and this theory having been put in practice by M. Reaumer, an ingenious foreigner, several successful attempts at resuscitation were recorded in Switzerland, and a society for the recovery of the apparently drowned was established in Amsterdam. In the year 1773 the records of this society fell into the hands of the late Dr. Hawes, who, in association with Dr. Cogan and several other gentlemen, founded what is known as the Royal Humane Society (q.v.).

If from drowning, suffocation, or narcotic poisoning, the points to be aimed at are--first and immediately, the restoration of breathing; and, secondly, after breathing is restored, the promotion of warmth and circulation.

Dr. H. R. Silvester's Method of Restoring Natural Breathing.

Rule 1. To adjust the patient's position. Place the patient on his back on a flat surface, inclined a little from the feet upwards; raise and support the head and shoulders on a small firm cushion or folded article of dress placed under the shoulder-blades. Remove all tight clothing about the neck and chest.

Rule 2. To maintain a free entrance of air into the windpipe. Cleanse the mouth and nostrils; open the mouth; draw forward the patient's tongue, and keep it forward; an elastic band over the tongue and under the chin will answer this purpose.

Rule 3. To imitate the movements of breathing. Firstly. Induce inspiration. Place yourself at the head of the patient, grasp his arms, raise them upwards by the sides of his head, stretch them steadily but gently upwards, for two seconds. (By this means fresh air is drawn into the lungs by raising the ribs.)

Secondly. Induce expiration. Immediately turn. down the patient's arms, and press them-or your own hands-gently against the sides of his chest, for two seconds. (By this means foul air is expelled from the lungs by depressing the ribs.) Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and perseveringly, fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire be perceived. these means an exchange of air is produced in the lungs similar to that effected by natural respiration.) Rule 4. To excite respiration.

(By

APPORTIONMENT

the arms above described being continued until respiration is fully restored. Raise the body in twenty seconds to a sitting position, dash cold water against the chest and face, and pass ammonia under the nose. Should a galvanic apparatus be at hand, apply the sponges to the region of diaphragm and heart. Treatment after Natural Breathing has been Restored. To induce circulation and warmth. Wrap the patient in dry blankets, and rub the limbs upwards energetically. Promote the warmth of the body by hot flannels, bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, and to the soles of the feet.

On the restoration of life, when the power of swallowing has returned, a teaspoonful of warm water, small quantities of wine, warm brandy and water, or coffee should be given. The patient should be kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. During reaction large mustard plasters to the chest and below the shoulders will greatly relieve the distressed breathing.

Note. In all cases of prolonged immersion in cold water, when the breathing continues a warm bath should be employed to restore the temperature.

Apportionment (1) may form the subject of an action for distribution of salvage (q.v.), or may be raised by some interested party in the course of au ordinary salvage action. The Admiralty Court, which is bound to apportion on application, will consider, as between owners and crew, the value of the salving property and its risk, as against the skill, labour, and courage of the crew.

The master usually has a special award for his responsibility, and the crew a lump sum distributed, according to their ratings, but individual members may be specially awarded.

As between independent salvors, each case is considered according to its merits, but where the ser

с

APPRAISE

vices are not rendered contemporaneously, the first set of salvors is favoured.

(2) Apportionment of collision damage. Where both ships are held to blame, whatever the degree of fault is in each ship, the damage is apportioned in equal shares.

Thus, if the loss to A is £1,000 and to B £2,000, A can recover £500 against B, and B can recover £1,000 against A.

Appraise. To value goods imported.

Appraisement. When any questions arise in actions in the Admiralty Court as to the value of a ship or her cargo, the marshal or his deputy, acting under an order from the Court, proceed to make an inventory of the ship's property or cargo, which is appraised on oath by a qualified valuer. The inventory, appraisement in writing, and a certificate of the proceedings are then sent to the registry. An appraisement properly made is conclusive of the value of the property and is binding, although the property be afterwards sold for a lesser amount. Where a sale of a ship has been decreed by the Court, it is fixed and advertised by the marshal, and is usually sold by public auction. If the bidding is much under the appraised value, the Court will not always order the property to be sold for what it will fetch, but may settle a specific sum, below which it shall not be sold.

Apprentice, Sea. The contract of apprenticeship to the Merchant Service must, if the apprentice is to be bound for a longer period than one year, be made by indenture, a duplicate of which is sent for record to the Registrar-General of Shipping and Seamen (q.v.). The indenture of a pauper apprentice must be attested by two justices, who shall satisfy themselves that the boy has consented to be bound, is of at least 12 years of age, and sufficiently strong and healthy. In foreign-going ships the apprentice and his indenture must be produced to the superintendent before whom the crew is engaged. (Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, sections 105-109.)

No boy under 13 years of age can be apprenticed to the sea-fishing service; and no boy under 16 years, unless duly apprenticed by indenture in a form approved by the Board of Trade, can be taken to sea for longer than one day. The superintendent must satisfy himself that the indenture complies with this Act, that the boy's relatives or guardians assent to his apprenticeship, that the master is a fit person to receive the boy, and that the apprentice is not under the age of 13 and is of sufficient strength and health. The superintendent may enforce stipulations in the indenture on behalf of the boy, and take legal proceedings in his own name for this purpose.

Anyone who receives money or other consideration from the person to whom the boy is bound as apprentice shall be guilty of a misdemeanour. (Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, sections 392-398.)

The rights and liabilities of apprentices are very

similar to those of seamen, though apprentices are

"

not " seamen within the meaning of the Act.

Apraxin, Feodor, Count (1671-1728). Founder of the Russian Navy. In 1710 took a successful part against Sweden, and three years later was in command of the fleet against Finland, and was instrumental in inducing Sweden to conclude the treaty of Nystad, which gave Russia the Baltic Province. Was made Admiral of the Navy by Peter the Great. Apron. Strengthening timber abaft the lower part of stem, above foremost end of keel.

Aquarium. Tanks or vessels containing aquatic plants or animals living as nearly as possible under their natural conditions. Among the plants which flourish in the fresh water aquarium are the Canadian Water Weed, various species of Duckweed and the Bladderwort, the common Water Buttercup, Water Starwort and Hornwort. Of the animal inhabitants, by far the easier to keep alive are those capable of breathing both air and water, such as Newts and Axolotls. Of fish the Stickleback and Minnow are the most likely to flourish. There are Marine Aquariums attached to the Biological Station of Naples and Plymouth; and Aquaria at Brighton, Berlin, Hamburg, New York and Washington.

See Taylor's" Aquarium "(1881). Wood's "Common Objects of Sea-shore, including Hints for an Aquarium."

Aquarius. The eleventh sign in the Zodiac.

Aquatic Animals are those living in or about the water; swimming in, flying over, or deriving their food from the water.

Plants found growing in water,

Aquatic Plants. stagnant, fresh or salt.

Aquatics. Inhabiting or relating to water.
Aqueduct.

An artificial conduit or canal built for the conveyance of water. The term is not applied to pipes working under pressure, but only to channels in which water flows with a free surface. The piers and arches of an aqueduct may be of stone, brick or concrete. The water-channel of wood, iron, steel or masonry. At the end of the first century A.D., Rome had nine aqueducts, with a total length of over 270 miles. In the Roman provinces there were aqueducts at Nimes, Segovia, Tarragonia, Metz, Mainz, Antioch and Pyrgos. The aqueduct "Delle Torre Spolets" (Umbria) dates from the eighth century, and is about 300 feet high. There was a famous aqueduct at Athens (made 560 B.C.), one at Samos (625 A.D.), and one still in use at Syracuse. In France the aqueduct of Maintenon, which was constructed to bring water to Versailles, is 4,400 feet long, and over 200 feet high. The first aqueducts of importance in Britain were built towards the end of the eighteenth century, to carry canals. The Barton aqueduct, built by Brindley, carried the Bridgewater Canal over the Irwell. The aqueduct